Q.In spite of best planning, the sales target of a firm was not achieved. State the possible four causes for the failure.

The Perfect Decision-Maker That Never Was

Think about a game of chess. A perfectly rational player would, before making a single move, calculate every possible sequence of moves for the rest of the game, evaluate the outcome of each, and then pick the move that guarantees a win or the best possible result. That is the ideal of perfect rationality — the assumption that a decision-maker has unlimited time, unlimited information, and unlimited brainpower to process it all.

Now, think about how you actually make decisions. When you choose what to eat for lunch, you don't list every restaurant in a 5 km radius, check their entire menu, calculate the nutritional value of each dish, and then optimise for taste, cost, and health simultaneously. You look at a few familiar options, pick one that seems "good enough," and move on. That gap — between the perfect, all-knowing calculator and the real, limited human — is where bounded rationality lives.

The Precise Meaning

The term was popularised by economist Herbert Simon, who won the Nobel Prize for it. He argued that human decision-making is bounded — constrained — by three things:

• Limited information: We never have all the facts. We don't know the future, we don't know what everyone else is thinking, and we often don't even know all the available choices.
• Limited cognitive capacity: Our brains can only hold so much information at once. We cannot calculate the optimal outcome in complex situations the way a computer could.
• Limited time: Decisions have deadlines. You cannot spend a week deciding which brand of toothpaste to buy.

Because of these limits, people do not maximise (find the absolute best option). Instead, they satisfice — a word Simon coined by combining "satisfy" and "suffice." To satisfice means to search for a choice that meets a minimum acceptable threshold, and then stop searching once you find it.

Why It Matters in Commerce and Economics

This concept is a direct challenge to the classical economic assumption of the homo economicus — the perfectly rational, self-interested actor who always makes optimal choices. If you are studying commerce, you need to understand that real consumers, managers, and investors do not behave like that.

• For a consumer: You do not compare every single brand of phone in the market. You look at a few you already know, check if they fit your budget and basic needs, and buy one. You are satisficing, not optimising.
• For a manager: A business owner deciding on a new factory location does not evaluate every possible town in the country. They consider a handful of promising options, pick one that meets key criteria (cost, labour, transport), and go with it. The decision is rational within the bounds of their time and information. …