Q.What are cash equivalents?
🔒You're viewing a preview — the full solution, concept, methods & PYQ mapping are locked.
🔒 Start your 14-day free trial to unlock the full solution →Concept understanding — Cash Flow Classification
Cash Flow Classification: From Pocket Money to a Business
Think about your own monthly allowance. You get some money from your parents (inflow), you spend on snacks, movies, and stationery (outflow), and maybe you save a bit or borrow from a friend. Now, if someone asked you, "Where did your money come from and where did it go?", you'd naturally group those transactions: money from parents, money spent on fun, money saved. That's exactly what Cash Flow Classification does for a business — it sorts every cash transaction into one of three buckets so you can see the story behind the cash.
The Three Buckets: Operating, Investing, Financing
The NCERT Class-12 Accountancy textbook (Part II, Chapter 6) defines Cash Flow Statement as a statement that shows inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents from operating, investing, and financing activities. Let's break each one down.
1. Operating Activities (The Core Business)
These are the cash flows from the main revenue-producing activities of the business. For a manufacturing company, that means cash from selling goods and cash paid to suppliers, employees, and for rent. Think of it as the cash generated by the business's day-to-day operations.
Examples:
- Cash received from customers
- Cash paid to suppliers
- Cash paid for salaries, rent, taxes
- Cash received from interest or dividends (for a non-financial company, these are often classified as operating or investing — NCERT allows both, but operating is common)
2. Investing Activities (Buying and Selling Long-Term Assets)
These are cash flows from the purchase and sale of long-term assets and investments that are not cash equivalents. This bucket answers: "Is the business investing in its future growth or selling off its assets?"
Examples:
- Purchase of machinery, building, land (cash outflow)
- Sale of old machinery (cash inflow)
- Purchase of shares or debentures of other companies (cash outflow)
- Sale of such investments (cash inflow)
- Loans given to others (cash outflow) and repayment received (cash inflow)
3. Financing Activities (How the Business is Funded)
These are cash flows from transactions with the owners and lenders. This bucket shows how the business raises money and repays those who funded it.
Examples:
- Issue of shares or debentures (cash inflow)
- Repayment of long-term loans (cash outflow)
- Payment of dividends (cash outflow)
- Buyback of shares (cash outflow)
- Proceeds from long-term borrowings (cash inflow)
Why Does This Classification Matter?
A single number like "net cash flow" tells you very little. But when you see that a company has negative cash flow from operations but positive cash flow from financing, you immediately know: the company is burning cash from its core business and is surviving by borrowing or issuing shares. That's a red flag.
Conversely, a company with strong positive operating cash flow but negative investing cash flow is likely a healthy business investing in growth. The classification gives you the diagnosis of the business's financial health — not just the final number.
Accounting Treatment: No Debit/Credit Here
This is a crucial point for Class-12 students: The Cash Flow Statement is not a ledger account. It does not involve debiting or crediting any account. It is a statement prepared from the Balance Sheet and Statement of Profit & Loss (Income Statement). You do not pass journal entries for it.
Instead, you reclassify the changes in balance sheet items and income statement items into the three categories. The format is prescribed by the NCERT and is based on AS-3 (Revised).
The NCERT Format (Proforma) of Cash Flow Statement
Below is the standard format as per NCERT Class-12 Accountancy (Part II, Chapter 6). Note that the textbook uses ₹ for amounts.
| Particulars | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|
| A. Cash Flow from Operating Activities | |
| Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary Items | XXX |
| Adjustments for: | |
| Depreciation | + XXX |
| Loss on Sale of Asset | + XXX |
| Gain on Sale of Asset | – XXX |
| Operating Profit before Working Capital Changes | XXX |
| Changes in Working Capital: | |
| Increase in Current Assets | – XXX |
| Decrease in Current Assets | + XXX |
| Increase in Current Liabilities | + XXX |
| Decrease in Current Liabilities | – XXX |
| Cash Generated from Operations | XXX |
| Less: Income Tax Paid | (XXX) |
| Net Cash Flow from Operating Activities | XXX |
| B. Cash Flow from Investing Activities | |
| Purchase of Fixed Assets | (XXX) |
| Sale of Fixed Assets | XXX |
| Purchase of Investments | (XXX) |
| Sale of Investments | XXX |
| Interest Received | XXX |
| Dividends Received | XXX |
| Net Cash Flow from Investing Activities | XXX |
| C. Cash Flow from Financing Activities |
Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that can be quickly converted into a known amount of cash and carry an insignificant risk of change in value, held to meet short-term cash needs. …
Cash equivalents = short-term, highly liquid investments, quickly convertible to a known amount of cash, with negligible risk of value change.
Cash equivalents are investments held not for investment income but to meet short-term cash commitments. To qualify, an item must be:
- highly liquid and readily convertible into a known amount of cash, and
- subject to an insignificant risk of change in value (so, generally short maturity — about three months or less). …
Showing the 12 most recent of 129 on this concept.
- CBSE 2026Set 67/3/11 markMCQQ.(a) Which of the following are 'investing activities' for preparation of Cash Flow Statement ?(i) Payment of taxes(ii) Payment of dividend and interest(iii) Receipt of interest and dividend Choose the correct option from the following : (A) (i),(ii) and(iii) (B)(i) and(ii) (C)(ii) and(iii) (D)(iii) only(OR)(b) Which of the following statements is correct ? (A) Sale of property is a financing activity. (B) Cash deposited into bank will result in outflow of cash. (C) Receipt of royalties is an operating activity. (D) Buy-back of own equity shares is an investing activity.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Part (a): only receipt of interest and dividend are investing activities for a non-financial enterprise -> option (D).
Part (b): receipt of royalties is an operating activity -> statement (C) is correct.
The Cash Flow Statement classifies every cash inflow and outflow into three heads:
- Operating - principal revenue-producing activities (sale of goods/services, royalties, fees; payment to suppliers/employees; payment of income tax).
- Investing - acquisition/disposal of long-term assets and investments (purchase/sale of fixed assets; and, for a non-financial enterprise, receipt of interest and dividend).
- Financing - changes in owner's capital and borrowings (issue/redemption of shares and debentures; and, for a non-financial enterprise, payment of interest and dividend).
Part (a)
Classifying each item (non-financial enterprise, the standard assumption):
Item Classification (i) Payment of taxes Operating (ii) Payment of dividend and interest Financing (iii) Receipt of interest and dividend Investing - CBSE 2026Set 67/3/11 markMCQQ.Statement I : Operating activities are the activities that constitute the primary or main activities of an enterprise. Statement II : Cash advances and loans made by financial enterprises are usually classified as operating activities. Choose the correct option from the following : (A) Both the Statements are false. (B) Statement I is true and Statement II is false. (C) Statement I is false and Statement II is true. (D) Both the Statements are true.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Both statements are true: operating activities form the core business of an enterprise, and for financial enterprises specifically, cash advances and loans are indeed classified as operating activities because they represent their primary business function.
The classification of activities in a cash flow statement rests on understanding what constitutes the "core business" of an enterprise. Operating activities are not some abstract accounting category—they represent the day-to-day transactions that generate the principal revenue for which the entity was established. For a manufacturing company, this means buying raw materials, producing goods, and selling them. For a retailer, it means purchasing inventory and selling it to customers. The key is identifying what the business fundamentally does to earn its keep.
Statement I captures this essential principle. Operating activities are indeed the primary activities of an enterprise—the ones that define its business model and generate its main revenue streams. These activities typically involve transactions that enter into the determination of net profit or loss. They include cash receipts from the sale of goods and services, cash payments to suppliers for goods and services, cash payments to and on behalf of employees, and similar day-to-day transactions. This is the heartbeat of the business, the reason it exists.
Now here's where many students stumble: they assume that because loans and advances sound "financial," they must always be classified as investing or financing activities. That's true for most non-financial enterprises. If a trading company lends money to a supplier, that's an investing activity—it's outside the company's core business. But financial enterprises operate under entirely different rules because their core business is money itself. …
- CBSE 2026Set 67/4/11 markMCQQ.Statement I : Quick Credit Ltd., a finance company, paid interest on borrowings amounting to ₹ 80,000. This will be shown as cash outflow from operating activities in its Cash Flow Statement. Statement II : Royal Foods Ltd., a non-financial enterprise, paid dividends amounting to ₹ 2,30,000. It will be shown as cash outflow from operating activities in its Cash Flow Statement. Choose the correct option from the following : (A) Statement I is true and Statement II is false. (B) Statement I is false and Statement II is true. (C) Both the Statements are true. (D) Both the Statements are false.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Statement I is true because a finance company treats interest paid as an operating activity, while Statement II is false because a non-financial enterprise shows dividends paid as a financing activity.
To understand why these two statements are treated differently, we need to step into the logic of the Cash Flow Statement as per Accounting Standard 3 (AS-3) under the Companies Act. The core idea is that cash flows are classified into three buckets: operating, investing, and financing activities. But the classification of certain items — especially interest and dividends — depends entirely on the nature of the enterprise.
Let’s take Statement I first. Quick Credit Ltd. is a finance company. For such a company, borrowing and lending money is its main business. Think of it like a shop that sells loans — its raw material is borrowed funds, and its revenue comes from interest earned on loans given. So, when Quick Credit pays interest on its borrowings, that is not a financing cost in the usual sense; it is an operating expense, just like a manufacturer paying for raw materials. The NCERT textbook explicitly states that for a financial enterprise, interest paid and interest received are classified as operating activities because they arise from the core revenue-generating activities of the business. Therefore, Statement I is correct.
NoteThe same logic applies to dividends received by a finance company — those too are operating inflows, because they are part of its regular income stream. …
- CBSE 2026Set 67/4/11 markMCQQ.(a) The following information was obtained about the cash flows of XYZ Ltd. for the year ended 31st March, 2025 : Cash inflows from operating activities ₹ 28,000; cash used in investing activities ₹ 32,000 and cash inflows from financing activities ₹ 5,000. If the opening balance of cash and cash equivalents on 1st April, 2024 was ₹ 25,000, the closing balance of cash and cash equivalents on 31st March, 2025 will be : (A) ₹ 90,000 (B) ₹ 6,000 (C) ₹ 26,000 (D) ₹ 70,000(OR)(b) The following information was obtained from the books of PQR Ltd. : Profit and Loss balance (Dr.) as at 31st March, 2024 : ₹ 30,000 Profit and Loss balance (Cr.) as at 31st March, 2025 : ₹ 56,000 Interim Dividend paid during the year : ₹ 36,000 The net profit before taxation for the year ended 31st March, 2025 will be : (A) ₹ 86,000 (B) ₹ 62,000 (C) ₹ 1,22,000 (D) ₹ 50,000
›Reveal solutionSolution
Part (a): closing cash and cash equivalents = ₹26,000, option (C). Part (b): net profit before tax = ₹1,22,000, option (C).
Part (a)
"Cash used in" investing is an outflow (negative).
Particulars Amount (₹) Opening balance (1 Apr 2024) 25,000 Add: Operating inflow 28,000 Less: Investing outflow (32,000) Add: Financing inflow 5,000 - CBSE 2026Set 67/5/11 markMCQQ.Statement I : In case of non-financial enterprises, payment of interest and dividend are classified as financing activities. Statement II : In case of financial enterprises, payment of interest and dividend are classified as investing activities. Choose the correct option from the following : (A) Both the statements are true. (B) Both the statements are false. (C) Statement I is true, but Statement II is false. (D) Statement I is false, but Statement II is true.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Statement I is correct—non-financial enterprises treat interest and dividend payments as financing activities—but Statement II is false because financial enterprises classify these payments as operating activities, not investing activities.
The classification of cash flows in a statement of cash flows depends fundamentally on the nature of the enterprise. Indian Accounting Standard (Ind AS) 7 and the NCERT textbook on Accountancy recognize that what constitutes a core business activity for one type of company may be peripheral for another, and this distinction shapes how we report cash movements.
For non-financial enterprises—manufacturing firms, retailers, service companies—the primary business revolves around producing goods or delivering services. Their core operations generate revenue through sales. When such a company pays interest on borrowed funds or distributes dividends to shareholders, these payments relate to how the business is financed, not how it operates day-to-day. Interest represents the cost of debt capital, and dividends are the return on equity capital. Both are consequences of financing decisions—choices about capital structure—rather than the operational cycle of buying inputs, adding value, and selling output. Therefore, the textbook and accounting standards classify payment of interest and dividend by non-financial enterprises as financing activities. Statement I captures this correctly.
Now consider financial enterprises—banks, insurance companies, non-banking financial companies. For these institutions, money itself is the product. A bank's core business is accepting deposits and lending money; interest paid on deposits and interest received on loans are the very heartbeat of operations. Similarly, dividends received from investments form part of the regular business activity for many financial institutions. The textbook explicitly states that for financial enterprises, interest paid and interest and dividends received are classified as operating activities because they directly relate to the main revenue-generating functions of the business.
ImportantThe key principle: classify cash flows according to the nature of the enterprise. What is financing for a manufacturer is operating for a bank. …
- CBSE 2026Set 67/5/11 markMCQQ.(a) During the year ended 31st March, 2025, H.P. Ltd. paid an interim dividend of ₹ 50,00,000. From the following, choose the correct option for the purpose of preparing ‘Cash Flow Statement’ : (A) ₹ 50,00,000 paid as interim dividend during the year will be shown as outflow of cash under financing activities and added back to net profit to calculate cash flows from operating activities. (B) ₹ 50,00,000 paid as interim dividend during the year will be shown as outflow of cash under financing activities and deducted from net profit to calculate cash flows from operating activities. (C) ₹ 50,00,000 paid as interim dividend during the year will be shown as cash outflow from financing activities only. (D) ₹ 50,00,000 paid as interim dividend during the year will be added back to net profit to calculate cash flows from operating activities only.(OR)(b) Which of the following is a financing activity for the purpose of preparing a Cash Flow Statement ? (A) Interest received (B) Dividend received (C) Royalties received (D) Interest paid on debentures
›Reveal solutionSolution
Part (a): interim dividend paid = financing outflow only — (C). Part (b): interest paid on debentures = financing activity — (D).
Part (a)
Dividends paid (interim or final) are a distribution to shareholders — the providers of capital — so they are a financing activity. Since dividend is an appropriation recorded after net profit, it never touches the Statement of Profit & Loss, so no add-back or deduction is made while computing cash from operations. Options (A) and (B) wrongly add an operating adjustment; (D) wrongly limits it to operating. …
- CBSE 2026Set MARCH1 markMCQQ.Cash equivalent has _____.(a) higher liquidity(b) higher solvency(c) higher profitability(d) All of the above
›Reveal solutionSolution
Cash equivalents are marked by higher liquidity, so the answer is (a).
Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments (for example, treasury bills or very short-term deposits) that are readily convertible into a known amount of cash and carry an insignificant risk of change in value. Their essential characteristic i …
- CBSE 2026Set MARCH1 markQ.In which activity the received dividend and interest are recorded?
›Reveal solutionSolution
Dividend and interest received are shown under investing activities (for a non-finance company).
In the cash flow statement of a company other than a financial enterprise:
- Dividend received on investments and interest received on loans/investments are inflows earned from the company's investing activities, so they appear under Cash Flow from Investing Activities. …
- CBSE 2026Set MARCH1 markMCQQ.Following is an extraordinary item :(a) a) Salary paid(b) b) Tax paid(c) c) Rent paid(d) d) Loss due to theft
›Reveal solutionSolution
Loss due to theft is unusual and non-recurring, so it is the extraordinary item - option (d).
Extraordinary items are those that are not part of the routine, day-to-day operations of the business and are not expected to occur regularly (for example, loss by fire, theft, or gains/losses from lawsuits). Salary paid, tax paid and rent paid are all ordinary, recurring items of business.
…
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ."Purchase of a plant for cash" is A) Cash outflow B) No cash flow C) Cannot be determined D) Cash inflow
›Reveal solutionSolution
Purchase of a plant for cash is a cash outflow - option (A).
When a plant (a fixed/non-current asset) is purchased for cash, cash goes OUT of the business, so it reduces the closing cash balance. In the Cash Flow Statement it is recorded as an outflow under Investing Activities.
…
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markQ.Fill in the blank: While preparing the cash-flow statement, deferred tax is a __________ item. (Non-cash/Cash)
›Reveal solutionSolution
Deferred tax is a non-cash item in the Cash Flow Statement.
Deferred tax arises from timing differences between accounting profit and taxable profit; it is a book adjustment and involves no actual movement of cash in the period. Therefore, like depreciation or goodwill written off, it is a non-cash item and is added back/adjusted while computin …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.'Payment of Dividend' will come under what type of activity while preparing Cash Flow Statement?(a) Operating activity(b) Investing activity(c) Financing activity(d) None of these
›Reveal solutionSolution
Payment of dividend is a financing activity - option (c).
Financing activities are those that change the size and composition of the owners' capital and borrowings. Payment of dividend is a distribution to the shareholders (the providers of ownership capital), so it is an outflow classified under financi …
🎓Unlock everything free for 14 days
- ✓Full step-by-step solutions
- ✓Concept-first explanations
- ✓Methods, shortcuts & mistakes
- ✓PYQ mapping + timed mock tests
Full access for 14 days. No credit card required.