Jammu and Kashmir

Understanding the Kashmir Issue

The story of Jammu and Kashmir is not just about one region's demands; it is a powerful example of how a single political problem can have multiple layers — external aggression, internal democratic failures, and clashing visions of identity. The textbook traces this from the princely state's accession in 1947 all the way to the constitutional changes of 2019. The core tension has always been between the desire for a distinct identity (Kashmiriyat) and the pressures of national integration, complicated by Pakistan's persistent claims.

The Three Regions of the State

Before 2019, Jammu and Kashmir was a single state within the Indian Union. It was never a homogeneous entity. It comprised three distinct social and political regions:

• Jammu: A mix of foothills and plains. Predominantly Hindu, but with significant Muslim, Sikh, and other communities.
• Kashmir: The famous Kashmir valley. Mostly Kashmiri Muslims, with minorities of Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists.
• Ladakh: A high-altitude, mountainous region with a very small population, almost equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims.

This internal diversity meant that "regional aspirations" within the state itself were not uniform. The political conflict, however, centred overwhelmingly on the Kashmir valley.

Roots of the Problem: 1947 and the Accession

The modern problem began before Independence. Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh. He wanted to remain independent, not join either India or Pakistan.

• Pakistan's Claim: Pakistani leaders argued that because the state had a Muslim-majority population, it should belong to Pakistan.
• The People's View: The people, however, saw themselves primarily as Kashmiris. This distinct identity is known as Kashmiriyat.
• Sheikh Abdullah's Position: The popular movement in the state was led by Sheikh Abdullah and his party, the National Conference. They wanted to end the Maharaja's rule but were firmly against joining Pakistan. The National Conference was a secular organisation with close ties to the Indian National Congress, and Sheikh Abdullah was a personal friend of Jawaharlal Nehru.

In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators to capture Kashmir. The Maharaja, facing this invasion, asked India for military help. India agreed, but only after the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession with India. Indian forces drove back the infiltrators, but Pakistan continued to control a part of the state.

The issue was taken to the United Nations. The UN resolution of 21 April 1948 recommended a three-step process:

1. Pakistan must withdraw its tribesmen.
2. India must progressively reduce its forces.
3. A free and impartial plebiscite (a vote by the people) should be held to decide the state's future.

This resolution was never implemented. Meanwhile, in March 1948, Sheikh Abdullah became the Prime Minister of the state (the head of government was then called Prime Minister), and India granted the state provisional autonomy under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution.

External and Internal Disputes

The politics of Jammu and Kashmir has been conflict-ridden for two main reasons:

1. External Dispute (India vs. Pakistan):

Pakistan has consistently claimed the Kashmir valley. The 1947 tribal invasion led to a part of the state coming under Pakistani control. India considers this territory as Pakistan Occupied Jammu and Kashmir (POJK) . Kashmir has remained a major flashpoint between the two countries ever since.

2. Internal Dispute (Status within India):

The special status under Article 370 provoked two opposite reactions:

• Outside the state: Many Indians believed Article 370 prevented full integration and should be revoked, making J&K like any other state.
• Inside the state (especially Kashmir): Many Kashmiris felt the autonomy granted by Article 370 was not enough. They had three major grievances:
  • The Plebiscite Demand: The promise that accession would be referred to the people through a plebiscite was never fulfilled.
  • Erosion of Autonomy: They felt the special federal status guaranteed by Article 370 had been gradually eroded in practice, leading to demands for "Greater State Autonomy."
  • Lack of Democracy: There was a feeling that democracy, as practiced in the rest of India, had not been properly institutionalised in the state.

Politics Since 1948: A Timeline of Turmoil

The political history is a cycle of hope, betrayal, and violence.

• 1948-1953: Sheikh Abdullah initiated popular land reforms. However, differences grew between him and the central government over Kashmir's status. He was dismissed in 1953 and kept in detention for many years.
• 1953-1974: The leadership that followed lacked popular support and ruled mainly with the Centre's backing. Elections were marred by allegations of rigging. The Congress party gained influence, and the National Conference (minus Abdullah) eventually merged with it. In 1965, the state's constitution was amended, and the head of government was redesignated from Prime Minister to Chief Minister.
• 1974 Accord: Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah. He returned as Chief Minister, revived the National Conference, and won the 1977 elections.
• 1982-1986: After Sheikh Abdullah's death in 1982, his son Farooq Abdullah became Chief Minister. He was soon dismissed by the Governor, and a breakaway faction briefly ruled. This dismissal generated deep resentment in Kashmir, undermining the confidence built by the 1974 accord. The feeling of central intervention grew stronger when the National Conference formed an electoral alliance with the Congress in 1986.

Insurgency and After

The 1987 Assembly election was a turning point. The official results gave a massive victory to the National Conference-Congress alliance, but it was widely believed the election was rigged. This, combined with inefficient administration, fuelled a political crisis.

• Rise of Insurgency: By 1989, the state was in the grip of a militant movement demanding a separate Kashmiri nation. The insurgents received moral, material, and military support from Pakistan.
• Years of Violence: For years, the state was under President's Rule and effectively controlled by the armed forces. Extraordinary violence occurred from both insurgents and the army.
• Return to Elections: Assembly elections were held again in 1996. Farooq Abdullah's National Conference won, demanding regional autonomy. In 2002, the National Conference lost, and a coalition government of the People's Democratic Party (PDP) and Congress came to power. …