Globalisation and the Media

The Big Picture: Why Globalisation Matters for Media

Globalisation and the communication revolution are deeply linked. The media has always had an international side — news stories have been gathered from around the world, and Western films have been distributed overseas for decades. But until the 1970s, most media companies operated within specific domestic markets, following the regulations of their national governments. The industry was also sharply divided into separate sectors: cinema, print, radio, and television broadcasting each ran independently of the others.

In the last three decades, that has changed completely. National markets have given way to a fluid global market, and new technologies have fused together forms of media that were once distinct. The music industry is a powerful example of these far-reaching consequences.

The Music Industry: A Case Study in Globalisation

Music lends itself to globalisation more efficiently than any other art form. Why? Because music can reach people who do not share a written or spoken language. The growth of technology — from personal stereo systems to music television (like MTV) to the compact disc (CD) — has provided newer, more sophisticated ways for music to be distributed globally.

At the same time, the music industry is becoming ever more concentrated in the hands of a few international conglomerates. Yet some feel it is under great threat. The Internet allows music to be downloaded digitally, rather than purchased as CDs or cassettes from local stores. The global music industry currently relies on a complex network of factories, distribution chains, music shops, and sales staff. If the Internet removes the need for all these elements, allowing music to be marketed and downloaded directly, what will be left of the music industry? How do you see the influence of mobile applications on the music industry?

Print Media: The Indian Language Newspaper Revolution

It was once believed that television and the Internet would sideline print media. In India, the opposite has happened — the circulation of newspapers has grown. New technologies have helped boost production and circulation.

The most significant happening in the last few decades has been the Indian language newspaper revolution. Hindi, Telugu, and Kannada recorded the highest growth. Print publications in the country saw their average daily circulation increase by 23.7 million copies from 2006 to 2016 — from 39.1 million to 62.8 million copies a day, a compound annual growth rate of 4.87 per cent. Among the four main geographic zones, the north showed the highest growth at 7.83 per cent, followed by the south (4.95 per cent), west (2.81 per cent), and east (2.63 per cent). The top two Hindi dailies in India are Dainik Jagran and Dainik Bhaskar, with average qualifying sales of 3.92 million and 3.81 million respectively (July–December 2016).

The Eenadu story exemplifies this success. Founder Ramoji Rao launched the paper in 1974 after successfully organising a chit-fund. By associating with appropriate causes in rural areas — like the anti-arrack movement in the mid-1980s — the Telugu newspaper reached the countryside. This prompted it to launch 'district dailies' in 1989: tabloid inserts carrying sensational news from particular districts, as well as classified advertisements from villages and small towns. By 1998, Eenadu was being published from ten towns in Andhra Pradesh, and its circulation accounted for 70 per cent of the audited Telugu daily circulation.

Why have Indian language newspapers grown so much?

• Rising literacy and migration: There is a rise in the number of literate people migrating to cities. For example, the Hindi daily Hindustan printed 64,000 copies of its Delhi edition in 2003, which jumped to 425,000 by 2005. The reason: of Delhi's population of one crore forty-seven lakhs, 52 per cent had come from the Hindi belt of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Out of this, 47 per cent came from a rural background, and 60 per cent of them are less than 40 years of age.
• Catering to local needs: The needs of readers in small towns and villages are different from those in cities. Indian language newspapers cater to those needs. Dominant papers like Malayala Manorama and Eenadu introduced the concept of local news by launching district and, whenever necessary, block editions. Dina Thanthi, a leading Tamil newspaper, has always used simplified and colloquial language.
• Adoption of technology: Indian language newspapers have adopted advanced printing technologies and also introduced supplements, pullouts, and literary and niche booklets.
• Marketing strategies: The Dainik Bhaskar group's growth has been marked by consumer contact programmes, door-to-door surveys, and research. This reinforces the point that modern mass media must have a formal structural organisation.

Shift in circulation patterns: According to the Indian Readership Survey, the largest growth in readership has been in the Hindi belt. Indian language dailies as a whole grew substantially from 191 million readers to 425 million readers in 2019. The readership of English dailies, on the other hand, stagnated at around 31 million. In 2005, Hindi dailies Dainik Jagran (with 74 million readers) and Dainik Bhaskar (with 51 million) headed the list, while The Times of India and The Hindu were the English dailies with readerships of over 15.2 million and 5.3 million respectively. Of the top ten dailies in the 'ten million club', six are in Hindi, one in Tamil, two in Malayalam, and one in English. While English newspapers — often called 'national dailies' — circulate across regions, vernacular newspapers have vastly increased their circulation in the states and the rural hinterland. To compete with electronic media, English language newspapers have on the one hand reduced prices and on the other hand brought out editions from multiple centres.

Changes in newspaper production: the role of technology

From the late 1980s and early 1990s, newspapers became fully automatic — from the reporter's desk to the final page proof. The use of paper has been completely eliminated in this automated chain. This became possible because of two technological changes: networking of personal computers through LANs (local area networks) and the use of newsmaking software like Newsmaker and other customised software.

Changing technology has also changed the role and function of a reporter. The basic tools — a shorthand notebook, pen, typewriter, and a plain old telephone — have been replaced by a mini digital recorder, a laptop or PC, a mobile or satellite phone, and other accessories like a modem, dish, and antenna. These changes have increased the speed of news and helped newspaper managements push their deadlines to dawn. They are also able to plan a greater number of editions and provide the latest news to readers. A number of language newspapers are using new technologies to bring out separate editions for each district. While print centres are limited, the number of editions has grown manifold. For example, the Meerut-based Amar Ujala uses new technology for news gathering and for improving pictorial coverage. The newspaper has a network of nearly a hundred reporters and staffers and an equal number of photographers, feeding news to all its 13 editions spread across Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. All hundred correspondents are equipped with PCs and modems for news transmission, and the photographers carry digital cameras. Digital images are sent to the central news desk via modems.

The changing nature of newspapers

Many feared that the rise of electronic media would lead to a decline in print circulation. This has not happened — indeed, print has expanded. This process has, however, often involved cuts in prices and increasing dependence on the sponsors of advertisements, who in turn have a larger say in the content of newspapers.

Newspapers have tried to widen their audience and reach out to different groups. It has been argued that newspaper reading habits have changed. While older people read the newspaper in its entirety, younger readers often have specific interests — sports, entertainment, or society gossip — and directly move to the pages earmarked for those items. This segmented interest of readers implies that a newspaper must have a plurality of 'stories' to appeal to a wide range of readers with varied interests. This has often led to newspapers advocating infotainment — a combination of information and entertainment — to sustain the interest of readers. The production of a newspaper is no longer related to a commitment to certain values that embody a tradition. Newspapers have become a consumer product: as long as numbers are big, everything is up for sale.

Television: The Satellite Revolution

In 1991, there was one state-controlled TV channel in India: Doordarshan. By 1998, there were almost 70 channels. Privately run satellite channels multiplied rapidly since the mid-1990s. While Doordarshan broadcasts over 35 channels, there were about 900 private television networks broadcasting in 2020. The staggering growth of private satellite television has been one of the defining developments of contemporary India. In 2002, 134 million individuals watched satellite TV on an average every week. This number went up to 190 million in 2005. The number of homes with access to satellite TV jumped from 40 million in 2002 to 61 million in 2005. Satellite subscription has now penetrated 56 per cent of all TV homes.

How did private satellite TV arrive in India?

• The Gulf War of 1991 popularised CNN.
• In the same year, Star-TV was launched by the Whampoa Hutchinson Group of Hong Kong, signalling the arrival of private satellite channels in India.
• In 1992, Zee TV, a Hindi-based satellite entertainment channel, began beaming programmes to cable television viewers in India.
• By 2000, 40 private cable and satellite channels were available, including several that focused exclusively on regional-language broadcasting — like Sun-TV, Eenadu-TV, Udaya-TV, Raj-TV, and Asianet. Zee TV also launched several regional networks, broadcasting in Marathi, Bengali, and other languages.

The rise of cable television

While Doordarshan was expanding rapidly in the 1980s, the cable television industry was mushrooming in major Indian cities. The VCR greatly multiplied entertainment options for Indian audiences, providing alternatives to Doordarshan's single channel programming. Video viewing at home and in community-based parlours increased rapidly. The video fare consisted mostly of film-based entertainment, both domestic and imported. By 1984, entrepreneurs in cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad had begun wiring apartment buildings to transmit several films a day. The number of cable operators exploded from 100 in 1984, to 1,200 in 1988, to 15,000 in 1992, and to about 60,000 in 1999.

Localisation by transnational channels

The arrival of transnational television companies like Star TV, MTV, Channel [V], and Sony made some people worry about the likely impact on Indian youth and on Indian cultural identity. But most of these channels, through research, realised that the use of the familiar is more effective in procuring the diverse groups that constitute the Indian audience.

• Sony International's early strategy was to broadcast ten Hindi films a week, gradually decreasing the number as the station produced its own Hindi language content.
• The majority of foreign networks have now introduced either a segment of Hindi language programming (MTV India) or an entire new Hindi language channel (STAR Plus).
• STAR Sports and ESPN have dual commentary or an audio soundtrack in Hindi.
• The larger players have launched specific regional channels in languages such as Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, and Gujarati.

Perhaps the most dramatic adoption of localisation was carried out by STAR TV. In October 1996, STAR Plus — initially an all-English general entertainment channel originating from Hong Kong — began producing a Hindi language belt of programming between 7 and 9 PM. By February 1999, the channel was converted to a solely Hindi channel, and all English serials were shifted to STAR World, the network's English language international channel. Advertising to promote the change included the Hinglish slogan: 'Aapki Boli. Aapka Plus Point' (Your language/speech. Your Plus Point). Both STAR and Sony continued to dub US programming for younger audiences, as children appeared to be able to adjust to the peculiarities that arise when the language is one and the setting another.

The nature of television today …