Cultural Diversity and India as a Nation-state

The Indian nation-state is one of the most socially and culturally diverse countries in the world. According to the Census of India 2011, its population is about 1.21 billion — the second largest in the world at the time, and soon to become the largest. These billion-plus people speak roughly 1,632 different languages and dialects. Of these, twenty-two languages have been officially recognised and placed under the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, which guarantees them legal status.

In terms of religion, about 80% of the population are Hindus. This Hindu population is not a single, uniform group — it is regionally specific, plural in beliefs and practices, and divided by caste and language. About 14.2% of the population are Muslims, making India the world’s second largest Muslim country after Indonesia and Pakistan. The other major religious communities are Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.7%), Buddhists (0.7%), and Jains (0.4%). Because India’s total population is so huge, even these small percentages translate into very large absolute numbers.

How the Indian nation-state relates to community identities

The Indian case fits neither the assimilationist nor the integrationist model of nation-building. From its very beginning, the independent Indian state rejected the assimilationist model — though some sections of the dominant Hindu community have demanded such a model. Similarly, while ‘national integration’ is a constant theme in state policy, India has not been ‘integrationist’ in the standard sense.

The Constitution declares India a secular state, but religion, language, and other community factors are not banished from the public sphere. In fact, these communities are explicitly recognised by the state. By international standards, very strong constitutional protection is offered to minority religions. India’s problems have generally been more in the sphere of implementation and practice rather than in laws or principles.

The idea of a ‘state-nation’

An alternative to the classic nation-state is the ‘state-nation’. In a state-nation, various ‘nations’ — whether ethnic, religious, linguistic, or indigenous identities — can coexist peacefully and cooperatively within a single state polity. Case studies show that enduring democracies can be established in multicultural polities. Explicit efforts are needed to end the cultural exclusion of diverse groups and to build multiple and complementary identities. Such responsive policies create incentives for citizens to develop a feeling of unity in diversity — a ‘we’ feeling. Citizens find institutional and political space to identify with both their country and their other cultural identities, building trust in common institutions and supporting democratic politics. These factors are key to consolidating and deepening democracies and building enduring state-nations.

India’s Constitution incorporates this notion. Comparative surveys of long-standing democracies, including India, show that India has been very cohesive despite its diversity.

Threats and challenges

Modern India faces a grave challenge to its constitutional commitment to multiple and complementary identities. The rise of groups that seek to impose a singular Hindu identity on the country undermines the sense of inclusion and violates the rights of minorities. Recent communal violence raises serious concerns for social harmony and threatens to undermine India’s earlier achievements.

Those achievements have been considerable. Historically, India’s constitutional design recognised and responded to distinct group claims, enabling the polity to hold together despite enormous regional, linguistic, and cultural diversity. On indicators of identification, trust, and support, Indian citizens are deeply committed to the country and to democracy — despite the country’s diverse and highly stratified society. This performance is particularly impressive when compared with that of other long-standing and wealthier democracies.

The way forward …