(a) Why are less women found in regular salaried employment?

Concept: Gender discrimination and structural barriers in the Indian labour market.

Women face systemic obstacles that push them toward informal, unpaid, or irregular work rather than regular salaried jobs. Social norms often restrict women's mobility and prioritize domestic responsibilities, limiting their ability to pursue formal employment. Employers exhibit hiring bias, viewing women as less committed due to potential maternity or family obligations. Educational and skill gaps, though narrowing, still disadvantage women in competing for formal-sector positions. Additionally, lack of workplace safety, inadequate childcare facilities, and inflexible work hours make regular employment incompatible with women's dual burden of productive and reproductive roles. …

(a) Why are fewer women found in regular salaried employment?

Regular salaried employment—jobs with fixed wages, contracts, and social security—remains disproportionately male in India. Understanding why requires looking at both supply-side constraints (what limits women's participation) and demand-side barriers (how employers and markets respond).

1. Unpaid domestic and care work

Women shoulder the bulk of household responsibilities—childcare, cooking, elderly care—which are unpaid and time-intensive. This "double burden" leaves little room for full-time, fixed-schedule jobs. Regular employment demands punctuality and long hours, incompatible with these responsibilities.

2. Social and cultural norms

Patriarchal norms restrict women's mobility, especially in rural areas. Families may discourage women from working outside the home or in mixed-gender environments. Early marriage and childbearing further interrupt education and career trajectories.

3. Lack of flexible and safe work environments

Regular salaried jobs often lack part-time options, maternity benefits, or workplace safety measures. Concerns about harassment and inadequate public transport deter women from seeking such employment.

4. Educational and skill gaps

Though improving, women's access to higher education and vocational training lags behind men's. Many regular jobs require qualifications or skills women are less likely to possess due to historical inequities.

5. Employer discrimination

Hiring biases—explicit or implicit—favor men for permanent positions. Employers may view women as "risky" hires due to maternity leave or assume lower commitment, leading to preference for male candidates.

6. Concentration in informal sector

Women are overrepresented in casual labor, self-employment, and home-based work (e.g., agriculture, handicrafts), which offer flexibility but no job security or benefits. The informal sector absorbs those excluded from formal employment.

(b) Analyse the recent trends in sectoral distribution of workforce in India

The table reveals a structural transformation of the Indian economy between 1993 and 2012, though the pace is uneven.

1. Decline in the primary sector (agriculture)

The share of workers in agriculture, forestry, and fishing fell sharply—from nearly two-thirds to under half. This reflects:

• Mechanization and productivity gains reducing labor demand per unit of output.
• Push factors: stagnant rural incomes, fragmented landholdings, and agrarian distress driving workers to seek alternatives.
• Pull factors: growth in urban manufacturing and services offering (perceived) better opportunities.

Yet agriculture still employs the largest share, indicating the transition is incomplete. Many who leave farming enter low-productivity informal jobs rather than high-wage sectors.

2. Growth in the secondary sector (manufacturing and construction)

The secondary sector's share rose from 16% to 24.3%, the largest absolute gain. This growth is driven by:

• Construction boom: infrastructure projects and real-estate expansion absorbed millions of workers, especially migrants.
• Manufacturing expansion: though modest compared to East Asian economies, sectors like textiles, automobiles, and electronics grew. …