Q.Explain the mechanism of breathing, describing the roles of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles in inspiration and expiration.

Pulmonary Gas Exchange: The Intuition

Think of your lungs as a busy marketplace. On one side of a very thin wall is fresh air you just breathed in — rich in oxygen. On the other side is blood that has just returned from delivering oxygen to your muscles and brain — it's now loaded with carbon dioxide, a waste product. Both sides want to trade.

Oxygen wants to get into the blood. Carbon dioxide wants to get out of the blood and into the air you'll breathe out. No active pumps are needed — these gases simply move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated. That's diffusion, the same process that spreads a drop of ink through a glass of water.

The entire exchange happens across a membrane so thin — just one cell thick — that gas molecules cross it in a fraction of a second. This is the alveolar-capillary membrane: the wall of an air sac (alveolus) pressed directly against the wall of a tiny blood vessel (capillary).

The Precise Statement

Pulmonary gas exchange is the passive diffusion of oxygen ($O_2$) from alveolar air into pulmonary capillary blood, and of carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) from capillary blood into alveolar air, driven by partial pressure gradients across the alveolar-capillary membrane.

The Driving Force: Partial Pressures

Each gas in a mixture exerts its own pressure independently. In the alveoli, the partial pressure of oxygen ($P_{O_2}$) is about 100 mmHg. In the deoxygenated blood arriving from the body, $P_{O_2}$ is only about 40 mmHg. That 60 mmHg difference drives oxygen into the blood.

For carbon dioxide, the gradient runs the opposite way. Venous blood has $P_{CO_2}$ around 45 mmHg; alveolar air has $P_{CO_2}$ around 40 mmHg. That 5 mmHg difference is enough — $CO_2$ diffuses about 20 times more readily than $O_2$ through the membrane.

The Structural Setup

Your lungs contain roughly 300 million alveoli, giving a total surface area of about 70–100 square meters — roughly the size of a tennis court. Each alveolus is wrapped in a mesh of capillaries. The membrane between them is 0.2–0.5 micrometers thick. …