Physical Education · Ch 9 — Psychology and Sports
Stages of Growth and Development
Stages of Growth and Development
Change is the one certainty of life. It may be visible, as in physical change (gaining height or weight, changes in muscle and fat), or less visible, as in cognitive, emotional, social and moral change. These changes are commonly described according to stages of development based on age. People around us behave differently largely because they are at different stages. A developmental stage is temporary and is marked by characteristics that dominate at that point; individuals differ in the time and rate at which they develop, but are expected to reach certain achievements within each stage. These expected achievements become social expectations, known as developmental milestones.
From the point of view of physical education and sport, these changes affect participation and performance — so a detailed understanding of what happens at each age is critical for an individual's optimal growth and development.
The stages of the human life span
Though there is no single agreed classification, the human life span is broadly divided into:
- Infancy (birth to age 2)
- Childhood (2-11 years) — Early childhood (2-6 years) and Middle childhood (6-11 years)
- Adolescence (11 years to about 20 years)
- Adulthood (20-65 years) — Young adulthood (20-40 years) and Middle adulthood (40-65 years)
- Late adulthood (65 years and above)
The table below sets out the developmental milestones for each stage.
| Stage | Developmental milestones |
|---|---|
| Infancy (0-2 yrs) | Physical: body weight increases to almost triple the birth weight, and height increases by about one-third in the first year alone; brain size grows rapidly in the first 18 months. Linguistic: begins to develop language and learns through the sense organs, making sounds such as gurgling and cooing. Social & Emotional: expresses joy, anger and sadness by about 6 months. Motor skills: first controls the head and trunk, then lifts the chest, sits upright, crawls, creeps, stands with help and begins to walk. |
| Early Childhood (2-6 yrs) | Physical: develops an athletic appearance and loses baby chubbiness; brain and head grow rapidly. Cognitive: can classify objects, people and events; is imaginative and creates a hypothetical world. Psycho-social: can express feelings and communicate needs to others. Linguistic: develops the ability to speak in complete sentences. Motor skills: better control of movement and better coordination of body parts. |
| Late Childhood / Pre-Adolescence (6-11 yrs) | Physical: strength increases as body parts become stronger. Cognitive: develops concrete thinking (logical thought and mental operations to solve problems) but still lacks abstract thinking. Psycho-social: develops gender identification and social comparison. Motor skills: can use body parts with appropriate speed. |
| Adolescence (11-20 yrs) | Physical: gains height, weight and muscle and reaches maturity, though growth comes in spurts; the stage begins with the onset of puberty. Psycho-social: tends to be argumentative and to find fault with authority figures; self-conscious and strongly influenced by peers. Cognitive: becomes innovative, keen to learn new skills, and develops abstract thinking. Motor skills: develops strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and coordination rapidly. |
| Early Adulthood (20-40 yrs) | By adulthood, individuals are generally responsible, mature, self-supporting and well-integrated into society. |
| Middle Adulthood (40-65 yrs) | Characterised by strong social networking and a relatively stable personality; life is dominated by work and family. |
| Old Age (65 and above) | Marked by a decline in health and faculties; individuals often plan to retire, and the period is marked by inactivity and various physical limitations. |
A sports model: developmental stages of athletes
In sport, an athlete's growth and development at different stages is essential to consider when planning training, selecting activities and grouping athletes by ability. The growth and development of athletes can be grouped into four phases:
- Fun Phase — below 9 years
- Foundation Phase — 10-12 years
- Formative Phase — 13-15 years
- Final Phase — 16-19 years
For each phase, the key features (characteristics) and the recommended teaching/coaching approach are given across four elements: physical, motor skill, cognitive and psycho-social.
Fun Phase (below 9)
| Element | Characteristics | Teaching / Coaching Pedagogy |
|---|---|---|
| Physical | Slow but steady increase in height and weight | Add minimal physical conditioning |
| Motor Skill | Learns basic motor skills | Plan fun-oriented activities to develop motor skills |
| Cognitive | Short attention span | Add variation and variety in drills |
| Psycho-social | Sensitive to criticism | Create a stress-free atmosphere |
Foundation Phase (10-12 years)
| Element | Characteristics | Teaching / Coaching Pedagogy |
|---|---|---|
| Physical | Growth spurt and changes due to puberty | Plan low-intensity physical conditioning |
| Motor Skill | Motor-skill development at a different rate | Focus on skill refinement and development |
| Cognitive | Increased perception and logical thinking | Introduce Small-Sided Games (SSG); allow guided discovery |
| Psycho-social | High self-confidence; tendency to self-evaluate and compare oneself with others | Avoid winning and losing; give positive feedback |
Formative Phase (13-15 years)
| Element | Characteristics | Teaching / Coaching Pedagogy |
|---|---|---|
| Physical | Physical and hormonal changes | Plan training at match speed; add a fitness component |