Q.Describe the functions of any two of the following : A. Ureters of frog B. Kidney of human C. Bodywall in earthworm

The Body's Waste Disposal System

Think of your body as a city. Every cell is a house, every organ is a factory. Factories produce useful things, but they also produce garbage. Your cells, as they burn energy to keep you alive, generate waste — mostly nitrogenous compounds like urea (from protein breakdown) and excess salts and water. If this garbage piles up, the city gets poisoned.

The human excretory system is the city's dedicated garbage collection and disposal service. Its job is to filter the blood, collect the waste, and expel it safely as urine.

The Organs and Their Roles

The system is a pipeline with four main parts:

1. Kidneys (the pair of bean-shaped organs): The filtration plants. They receive blood, remove urea, excess salts, and water, and produce urine. They also regulate blood pressure and pH.
2. Ureters (two thin tubes): The transport pipes. Each kidney connects to a ureter, which carries urine from the kidney down to the bladder by peristaltic waves (muscle contractions).
3. Urinary Bladder: The storage tank. A muscular, stretchy sac that holds urine until it's convenient to release it. It can hold about 300–500 mL comfortably.
4. Urethra: The exit pipe. A single tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body.

How Urine Is Formed (The Core Process)

The kidney contains about a million tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron does three steps:

1. Filtration: Blood enters a knot of capillaries (the glomerulus). High pressure forces water, urea, glucose, salts, and small molecules out of the blood into a cup-like structure (Bowman's capsule). Large proteins and blood cells stay in the blood.
2. Reabsorption: As the filtrate flows through the long tubule of the nephron, useful substances are pulled back into the blood. All glucose is reabsorbed, most water and salts are reabsorbed according to the body's needs. This is where the kidney decides what to keep.
3. Secretion: Additional waste (like excess hydrogen ions, potassium, and drugs) is actively pushed from the blood into the tubule. This fine-tunes the final composition.

The remaining fluid — now called urine — flows out of the nephron, collects in the kidney's central cavity (the renal pelvis), and exits via the ureter.

The Voiding Reflex …