History · Ch 3 — Kinship, Caste and Class — Early Societies
The “right” occupation
The “right” occupation
The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras did not just list social categories — they prescribed what each varna should do. The idea was that every person had a “right” occupation, fixed by birth, and that society would function properly only if everyone stuck to their assigned role.
The four ideal occupations
The texts laid out specific duties for each varna:
- Brahmanas were to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts. These activities placed them at the top of the ritual hierarchy.
- Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people, and administer justice. They were also expected to study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts — the same three “occupations” assigned to the Vaishyas.
- Vaishyas shared those three duties (studying the Vedas, getting sacrifices performed, making gifts) but were additionally expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism, and trade.
- Shudras were assigned only one occupation — serving the three “higher” varnas.
Notice that the first three varnas shared some duties (studying the Vedas, performing sacrifices, giving gifts). What separated them was the primary occupation: teaching and priestly work for Brahmanas, warfare and governance for Kshatriyas, and economic production for Vaishyas. Shudras were entirely excluded from these shared duties.
How the Brahmanas tried to enforce these norms
The Brahmanas knew that getting people to follow these rules would not be easy. They developed three main strategies:
-
Divine origin. They asserted that the varna order was not a human invention but came from the gods themselves. The most famous proof was a verse from the Rigveda called the Purusha sukta, which described the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. From his body all elements of the universe emerged — including the four varnas:
- The Brahmana was his mouth.
- The Kshatriya was made from his arms.
- The Vaishya came from his thighs.
- The Shudra was born from his feet.
The message was clear: the hierarchy was built into the very structure of creation.
-
Royal enforcement. They advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms. The king’s duty was to uphold the varna order by force if necessary.
-
Birth-based status. They tried to persuade people that a person’s social status was determined by birth, not by merit or choice. This made the system seem fixed and unchangeable.
The textbook notes that enforcing these norms was “not always easy.” Prescriptions alone were not enough — they had to be reinforced by stories.
Stories as tools of social control
The Mahabharata and other texts carried stories that drove home the message of varna duty. One such story from the Adi Parvan involves Drona, a Brahmana who taught archery to the Kuru princes.
Ekalavya, a forest-dwelling nishada (a hunting community), approached Drona to become his pupil. Drona, “who knew the dharma,” refused — because Ekalavya was not of the right varna to learn archery from a Brahmana. Ekalavya returned to the forest, made a clay image of Drona, and practised on his own. He became extraordinarily skilled.
One day, the Kuru princes’ dog found Ekalavya in the forest. When the dog barked at him, Ekalavya shot seven arrows into its mouth — a feat that amazed the princes. They tracked him down, and Ekalavya introduced himself as Drona’s pupil. Arjuna, Drona’s favourite student, reminded Drona of his promise that Arjuna would be unrivalled. …
Source 6 — A divine order? To justify the varna hierarchy, Brahmanas often cited the Purusha sukta, a hymn in the Rigveda describing the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man, from whose body all the elements of the universe — including the four social categories — were said to have emerged:
The Brahmana was his mouth, of his arms was made the Kshatriya. His thighs became the Vaishya, of his feet the Shudra was born. …
Source 7 — "Proper" social roles. A story from the Adi Parvan of the Mahabharata:
Once Drona, a Brahmana who taught archery to the Kuru princes, was approached by Ekalavya, a forest-dwelling nishada (a hunting community). When Drona … refused to have him as his pupil, Ekalavya returned to the forest, prepared an image of Drona out of clay, and treating it as his teacher, began to practise on his own. In due course he acquired great skill in archery.
Later, so that his favourite pupil Arjuna would remain unrivalled, Drona demanded Ekalavya's right thumb as his teacher's fee — and Ekalavya, honouring him as his teacher, gave it without hesitation, after which he could no longer shoot as swiftly as before. …