History · Ch 5 — Through the Eyes of Travellers — Perceptions of Society
François Bernier: A Doctor with a Difference
François Bernier: A Doctor with a Difference
François Bernier: A Doctor with a Difference
The arrival of the Portuguese in India around 1500 opened a new chapter in European travel writing. Many Portuguese travellers wrote detailed accounts of Indian social customs and religious practices. Some, like the Jesuit Roberto Nobili, even translated Indian texts into European languages. Among the best-known Portuguese writers was Duarte Barbosa, who produced a detailed account of trade and society in south India.
After 1600, the number of Dutch, English, and French travellers to India grew steadily. One of the most famous was the French jeweller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who visited India at least six times. He was especially fascinated by trading conditions in India and compared them with those in Iran and the Ottoman empire. Some travellers, like the Italian doctor Manucci, never returned to Europe and settled permanently in India.
François Bernier, a Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher, and historian. Like many others, he came to the Mughal Empire seeking opportunities. He stayed in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668. During this time, he was closely associated with the Mughal court — first as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and scientist with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
Comparing “East” and “West”
Bernier travelled to several parts of India and wrote accounts of what he saw. He frequently compared what he observed in India with the situation in Europe. He dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the king of France, and many of his other works were written in the form of letters to influential officials and ministers.
In virtually every instance, Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak situation compared to developments in Europe. This assessment was not always accurate. However, when his works were published, they became extremely popular.
Bernier’s works were published in France in 1670–71. Within the next five years, they were translated into English, Dutch, German, and Italian. Between 1670 and 1725, his account was reprinted eight times in French, and by 1684 it had been reprinted three times in English. This was in marked contrast to accounts in Arabic and Persian, which circulated as manuscripts and were generally not published before 1800.
Travelling with the Mughal Army
Bernier often travelled with the Mughal army. Here is an excerpt from his description of the army’s march to Kashmir:
I am expected to keep two good Turkoman horses, and I also take with me a powerful Persian camel and driver, a groom for my horses, a cook and a servant to go before my horse with a flask of water in his hand, according to the custom of the country. I am also provided with every useful article, such as a tent of moderate size, a carpet, a portable bed made of four very strong but light canes, a pillow, a mattress, round leather table-cloths used at meals, some few napkins of dyed cloth, three small bags with culinary utensils which are all placed in a large bag, and this bag is again carried in a very capacious and strong double sack or net made of leather thongs. This double sack likewise contains the provisions, linen and wearing apparel, both of master and servants. I have taken care to lay in a stock of excellent rice for five or six days’ consumption, of sweet biscuits flavoured with anise (a herb), of limes and sugar. Nor have I forgotten a linen bag with its small iron hook for the purpose of suspending and draining dahi or curds; nothing being considered so refreshing in this country as lemonade and dahi.
The Creation and Circulation of Ideas about India
The writings of European travellers helped produce an image of India for Europeans through the printing and circulation of their books. Later, after 1750, when Indians like Shaikh Itisamuddin and Mirza Abu Talib visited Europe and confronted this image that Europeans had of their society, they tried to influence it by producing their own version of matters. …
Figure 5.6 is a seventeenth-century portrait of François Bernier, the French doctor and political philosopher who spent twelve years at the Mughal court. The painting shows him in European clothes — a deliberate contrast to the Indian attire worn by many other European travellers in Mughal portraits of the period. Bernier is depicted in a formal, seated pose, wearing a dark coat, a white collar, and a hat typical of seventeenth-century European gentlemen. The background is plain, with no Indian architectural elements or courtly settings, which reinforces the sense that Bernier is being shown as a European intellectual rather than as someone who adopted Mughal customs.
The caption in the textbook reads: "A seventeenth-century painting depicting Bernier in European clothes." This is significant because the textbook immediately follows it with Figure 5.7, which shows Jean-Baptiste Tavernier in Indian clothes. The pairing of these two images is deliberate: it highlights how European travellers in India made different choices about how they presented themselves — and how they were portrayed by artists. Bernier, who wrote critically about Mughal society and compared it unfavourably to Europe, is shown in European dress, reinforcing his identity as an outsider and a critic. Tavernier, who was more interested in trade and less judgmental, is shown in Indian clothes, suggesting a different kind of engagement with Indian society.
The painting itself is not a photograph — it is an artist's rendering, likely made in India by a Mughal or provincial artist for a European patron. The fact that Bernier is shown in European clothes tells us something about how he wanted to be seen: as a European intellectual, not as a Mughal courtier. This aligns with the textbook's point that Bernier's writings were dedicated to Louis XIV and written in the form of letters to French officials — he was addressing a European audience, not an Indian one.
The painting is not a self-portrait or a photograph. It is an artist's interpretation, probably made in India, but showing Bernier in European dress. This choice of clothing is a visual statement about his identity and his intended audience. …
Figure 5.7 shows a painting of the French jeweller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier dressed in Indian clothes. Tavernier was one of the most famous European travellers to India in the 17th century, and he came here at least six times. The painting is a visual record of how some European travellers adopted Indian dress during their long stays in the subcontinent — a practice that was common among those who, like Tavernier, were deeply engaged with Indian trade and society.
The image itself is a portrait: it shows Tavernier standing or seated, wearing a long Indian-style coat (a jama), a turban, and other local garments. The background is plain or minimally detailed, focusing attention on his face and clothing. There are no additional panels, arrows, labels, or objects in the painting — it is a straightforward portrait meant to convey his identity as a European who had integrated into Mughal India. …