Political Science · Ch 15 — Recent Developments in Indian Politics
Context of the 1990s
Context of the 1990s
The 1990s opened a genuinely new chapter in Indian party politics, driven by five developments — electoral, social, economic, religious, and personal — whose combined effect reshaped how the country was governed.
The End of the 'Congress System'
The single most consequential shift was the Congress party's defeat in the 1989 Lok Sabha election. Rajiv Gandhi had led the party to a landslide only five years earlier, in 1984 — a sympathy-driven win following Indira Gandhi's assassination that delivered Congress 415 seats. By 1989 that tally had collapsed to just 197. Congress did recover enough to return to government after the mid-term poll of 1991, but 1989 is still treated by political scientists as the point at which the so-called 'Congress system' — decades of Congress functioning as the default ruling party against which everyone else was merely competing — effectively came to an end. Congress remained a major force afterward, governing longer than any single rival in the years that followed, but it never regained the dominant position it had once held.
The Mandal Issue
A second, and equally far-reaching, shift came from what became known as the 'Mandal issue'. Soon after taking office in 1990, the National Front government moved to act on the Mandal Commission's recommendation that Central government jobs be reserved for Other Backward Classes (OBCs). The move triggered fierce 'anti-Mandal' agitation and unrest in many parts of the country, and the resulting fight between supporters and opponents of OBC reservation — remembered as the Mandal issue — went on to shape the direction of Indian politics from 1989 onward.
New Economic Reforms
A third shift came in economic policy. Beginning under Rajiv Gandhi but only becoming fully visible from 1991, India embarked on what is usually called structural adjustment or the new economic reforms — a genuine break from the economic path the country had followed since Independence. The reforms drew sustained opposition from various movements and organisations, yet no government of any political stripe that has since held power has chosen to reverse them.
The Ayodhya Dispute …
The figure is a political cartoon by R. K. Laxman, originally published in the Times of India. It captures the uncertainty and shifting alliances of the 1990s, a period when the Congress party had lost its dominant position in the national party system.
The cartoon shows a single panel. In the foreground, a man — the common man, Laxman’s signature character — is shown reading a newspaper. The newspaper is the central object in the image. On its front page, a large headline reads: "Message of Harmony Leadership in Congress made many headlines." This headline is a deliberate, ironic contrast to the actual news items listed below it, which are all about political instability and party manoeuvring.
Below that headline, the newspaper lists four specific events, each with a date:
- 1 May 1996 — This refers to the day the United Front government, led by H. D. Deve Gowda, was formed with outside support from the Congress. The Congress had withdrawn support from the previous government, leading to fresh elections.
- 25 October 1995 — This is the date when Congress leader Sitaram Kesri withdrew the party’s support from the United Front government of Deve Gowda, causing its collapse. The cartoon caption directly references this: "Congress leader Sitaram Kesri withdrew the crutches of support from Deve Gowda’s United Front Government."
- 20 August 2001 — This likely refers to a later political event, possibly related to the Congress’s internal leadership struggles or another coalition crisis.
- 25 October 2004 — This date is after the 2004 general election, when the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) came to power. It may refer to a specific political development or a comment on the party’s return to government. …
The cartoon, published in the Times of India and drawn by R. K. Laxman, is a visual commentary on the political turmoil of the mid-1990s. It shows a large, imposing figure of a man labelled "Mandalisation" — a reference to the implementation of the Mandal Commission's recommendations for OBC reservations. This figure is shown as a heavy, crushing weight, pressing down on a group of smaller, anxious-looking politicians who represent various political parties. The caption reads: "I wonder how this will affect political parties!" — capturing the uncertainty and disruption that the Mandal issue caused in the party system.
In the background, there is a newspaper headline that reads "Message of Harmony Leadership in Congress made many headlines." This is a direct reference to the Congress party's attempt to project a message of unity and harmony under its leadership, even as the party was losing its dominant position. The cartoon thus juxtaposes two major developments of the 1990s: the rise of the Mandal issue as a divisive force in politics, and the Congress party's struggle to maintain its relevance and leadership.
The cartoon is placed in the textbook section that discusses the "Context of the 1990s," specifically the second development — the Mandal issue. It visually reinforces the idea that the Mandal Commission's implementation was a seismic event that shook the foundations of the existing party system, forcing all parties, including the Congress, to rethink their strategies. The "crutches of support" mentioned in the text (referring to Sitaram Kesri's withdrawal of support from Deve Gowda's government) are not directly shown in the cartoon, but the overall mood of instability and realignment is clearly conveyed. …
The figure is a timeline-style cartoon that tracks the Congress party's changing fortunes between 1995 and 2004. It is built around a central question: "I wonder how this will affect political parties!" — a thought bubble that appears to belong to a character (likely a cartoonist's stand-in for the public or a commentator) who is watching the party's ups and downs.
The timeline runs from left to right, marked by four specific dates, each linked to a key event in Congress's history during this period:
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25 October 1995 — This is the earliest date shown. It likely refers to the period when P.V. Narasimha Rao was Prime Minister (1991–1996). The Congress was in power at the centre, but the party's internal troubles were already visible. The cartoon probably shows the party leadership as stable but under strain, with the "Message of Harmony" slogan suggesting an attempt to project unity.
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1 May 1996 — This date marks the end of the Narasimha Rao government. The Congress had lost the 1996 general election, and the party was reduced to a much weaker position. The cartoon likely depicts the party's decline — perhaps showing the Congress symbol (the hand) shrinking or being pushed aside, as the era of coalition politics began.
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20 August 2001 — By this time, the Congress was in opposition, led by Sonia Gandhi (who became party president in 1998). The date is significant because it falls during the period when the Congress was trying to rebuild itself after a string of electoral defeats. The cartoon probably shows the party attempting to regain its footing, with the "Leadership in Congress made many headlines" caption referring to the internal leadership struggles and the rise of new faces.
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25 October 2004 — This is the most recent date. The Congress had just won the 2004 general election and formed the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government under Manmohan Singh. The cartoon likely shows the party back in power, but with a changed character — no longer the dominant "Congress system" of old, but now a coalition leader. The "Message of Harmony" might refer to the party's new inclusive, alliance-based approach. …