Psychology · Ch 2 — Self and Personality
Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self
Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self
The Cognitive and Behavioural View of Self
Psychologists across the world have studied how we think about and act in relation to ourselves. This work has revealed several key aspects of our behaviour that are tied to the self. We all carry an inner sense of who we are, what makes us unique, and we hold onto our personal and social identities, feeling secure in the knowledge that these remain stable over our lifetime.
Self-Concept
The way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our own competencies and attributes is called self-concept. At a very general level, this view of oneself is either positive or negative overall. But it is more specific than that.
A person may have a very positive view of their athletic bravery, for example, but a negative view of their academic talents. Going even further, one might have a positive self-concept about reading ability but a negative one about mathematical skills. Finding out an individual's self-concept is not easy. The most frequently used method involves simply asking the person about themselves.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the value judgment a person makes about their own worth. Some people have high self-esteem, while others have low self-esteem.
To assess self-esteem, psychologists present a person with a variety of statements and ask them to indicate how true each statement is for them. For example, a child might be asked to rate statements like "I am good at homework," "I am the one usually chosen for the games," or "I am highly liked by my peers." If a child reports these as true, their self-esteem is high compared to someone who says "no."
Studies show that by the age of 6 to 7 years, children have already formed self-esteem in at least four areas:
- Academic competence
- Social competence
- Physical/athletic competence
- Physical appearance These self-evaluations become more refined with age.
Our capacity to view ourselves in terms of stable dispositions allows us to combine these separate self-evaluations into a general psychological image of ourselves. This is known as an overall sense of self-esteem.
Self-esteem has a strong relationship with everyday behaviour:
- Children with high academic self-esteem perform better in school than those with low academic self-esteem.
- Children with high social self-esteem are more liked by their peers.
- Children with low self-esteem in all areas are often found to display anxiety, depression, and increasing antisocial behaviour.
Development of self-esteem: Warm and positive parenting helps develop high self-esteem in children because it lets them know they are accepted as competent and worthwhile. In contrast, children whose parents help them or make decisions for them even when they do not need assistance often suffer from low self-esteem.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to the extent to which people believe they themselves control their life outcomes, as opposed to outcomes being controlled by luck, fate, or other situational factors. For example, consider passing an examination. A person who believes they have the ability or behaviours required by a particular situation demonstrates high self-efficacy.
The notion of self-efficacy is based on Bandura's social learning theory. Bandura's initial studies showed that children and adults learn behaviour by observing and imitating others. People's expectations of mastery or achievement, and their convictions about their own effectiveness, determine the types of behaviour they will engage in and the amount of risk they will undertake.
A strong sense of self-efficacy allows people to select, influence, and even construct the circumstances of their own life. People with a strong sense of self-efficacy also feel less fearful.
Self-efficacy can be developed. People with high self-efficacy have been found to stop smoking the moment they decide to do so. Our society, our parents, and our own positive experiences can help develop a strong sense of self-efficacy by presenting positive models during the formative years of childhood.
Self-Regulation and Self-Control
Self-regulation refers to our ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour. People who are able to change their behaviour according to the demands of the external environment are high on self-monitoring.
Many situations in life require resistance to situational pressures and control over ourselves. This becomes possible through what is commonly known as "will power." As human beings, we can control our behaviour the way we want. We often decide to delay or defer the satisfaction of certain needs. Learning to delay or defer the gratification of needs is called self-control. Self-control plays a key role in the fulfilment of long-term goals. …