Psychology · Ch 1 — Variations in Psychological Attributes
Summary
Summary
- Individual differences are the stable, enduring variations among people in psychological attributes like intelligence, personality, and creativity. These are distinct from situational fluctuations.
- Intelligence is defined as the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. It is not a single ability but a composite of many.
- Alfred Binet developed the first practical intelligence test, introducing the concept of mental age (MA). The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is calculated as (MA ÷ CA) × 100, where CA is chronological age. An IQ of 100 represents average performance for one's age group.
- Theories of intelligence are grouped into two broad approaches:
- Factor theories (Spearman's g and s factors, Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities, Guilford's Structure of Intellect model) view intelligence as composed of underlying mental abilities or factors.
- Cognitive theories (Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Sternberg's Triarchic Theory) view intelligence as a set of distinct, relatively independent capacities or as mental processes used to achieve goals.
- Gardner proposed eight types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Each is relatively independent and has its own developmental trajectory.
- Sternberg's Triarchic Theory identifies three aspects of intelligence: componential (analytical), experiential (creative), and contextual (practical). Success in life depends on balancing these three.
- Intelligence tests are classified as individual (e.g., Stanford-Binet, Wechsler scales) or group (e.g., Raven's Progressive Matrices), and as verbal or non-verbal. The Wechsler scales yield separate IQ scores for Verbal and Performance domains, plus a Full Scale IQ.
- Intelligence is influenced by both heredity and environment. Heritability estimates (e.g., 0.50 for IQ) indicate the proportion of variance in a population due to genetic factors, but environment (nutrition, schooling, family) also plays a critical role.
- Variations in intelligence include intellectual disability (IQ below 70, with deficits in adaptive behaviour) and giftedness (IQ above 130, often with high creativity and task commitment). Both require appropriate educational support.
- Creativity is the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. It is related to but distinct from intelligence — a minimum level of intelligence is necessary, but beyond that, creativity involves divergent thinking, risk-taking, and intrinsic motivation.
- Assessment of creativity uses tests of divergent thinking (e.g., Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking), measuring fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. …