Q.Write the functions in brief in column B, appropriate to the structures given in column A.
Column A: a. Nictitating membrane b. Tympanum c. Copulatory pad
Column B: i. __________________________ ii. __________________________ iii. __________________________

Frog External Morphology – First Look

Imagine an animal that lives half its life in water and half on land. It needs a body that can swim efficiently, but also hop around on mud and grass. That is exactly what the frog's external structure is built for — a compromise between two very different worlds.

The frog you will study in Indian exams is Rana tigrina, the Indian bullfrog. Its body is a masterpiece of dual adaptation: streamlined for water, yet sturdy enough for land.

The Three Body Divisions

Unlike humans (head, trunk, limbs), a frog's body is divided into head and trunk — there is no neck. The head is flat and triangular, attached directly to the trunk. This is not a design flaw; it helps the frog keep its body low in water and reduces drag while swimming.

Head – Contains the mouth, nostrils, eyes, and tympanum (eardrum). The eyes are large and bulging, placed on top of the head. Why? So the frog can see above water while the rest of its body stays submerged. Each eye has a nictitating membrane — a transparent third eyelid that sweeps across the eye to keep it moist on land and protect it underwater.

Trunk – Broad and flat, houses the internal organs. The trunk ends at the cloacal aperture (the single opening for digestive, urinary, and reproductive waste).

Limbs – Two pairs. The forelimbs are short and end in four fingers (no webbing). The hindlimbs are long, muscular, and end in five toes connected by webbing — a swimming fin. The hindlimbs are the frog's engine: they fold like a spring and then explode, launching the frog forward.

The Skin – A Living Lung

The frog's skin is moist, smooth, and glandular. It is not just a covering; it is a respiratory organ. Frogs breathe through their skin (cutaneous respiration) both in water and on land. The mucus secreted by skin glands keeps the surface wet, allowing oxygen to dissolve and diffuse into the blood.

The skin is loosely attached to the body — it is not tight like a mammal's. This loose attachment allows the frog to shed its skin periodically (ecdysis) and also helps in absorbing water.

Colouration is cryptic (camouflage). The dorsal side is olive-green with dark spots, blending with mud and vegetation. The ventral side is pale yellow or white — less visible to predators looking up from below. …