Q.Give an account of the methods used in sequencing the human genome.

Let’s start with something you already know from daily life.

Imagine a small chai stall. The owner buys milk, tea leaves, sugar, and firewood. Every morning, she boils a small pot of milk, makes a few cups, and sells them. Now imagine a big tea company that runs a factory. It buys milk in tankers, tea leaves by the truckload, and uses industrial boilers. The company makes thousands of cups every hour.

The difference between the chai stall and the tea company is not just size. It is about two different kinds of advantage: scale and scope.

What is Scale?

Scale means doing more of the same thing. When a firm produces a larger quantity of a single product, its average cost per unit often falls. This happens because fixed costs — like rent, machinery, or a manager’s salary — get spread over more units. The chai stall pays the same rent whether it sells 50 cups or 100 cups. If it could sell 100 cups, the rent per cup would be half. That is the logic of economies of scale.

In the NCERT textbook (Class 11, Microeconomics, Chapter 3: Production and Costs), this is explained as the falling portion of the long-run average cost curve. As output increases, the firm can use more efficient technology, buy inputs in bulk at lower prices, and specialise labour. But scale has a limit. Beyond a point, diseconomies set in — coordination becomes harder, communication slows, and costs start rising again.

What is Scope?

Scope means doing more different things using the same resources. A firm enjoys economies of scope when it can produce two or more products together at a lower total cost than producing them separately.

Think of a dairy. It buys milk, processes it, and sells milk packets. But the same milk can also be turned into curd, butter, paneer, and cheese. The dairy already has the chilling plant, the pasteurisation equipment, the delivery trucks, and the sales network. Adding a new product — say, flavoured lassi — uses the same milk, the same factory, and the same distribution. The extra cost of making lassi is much smaller than starting a separate lassi company from scratch.

The NCERT textbook does not use the term “economies of scope” explicitly in the core microeconomics chapters, but the idea appears in the discussion of joint products and multi-product firms. In business studies (Class 12, Chapter 9: Financial Management), you see it indirectly when firms diversify into related products to use existing resources better.

Why It Matters

Scale and scope are not just textbook terms. They explain the structure of industries you see around you.

• Scale explains why a single large steel plant can produce steel cheaper than a hundred small furnaces. It also explains why small shops survive — they offer personal service, location convenience, or customisation that a giant factory cannot.
• Scope explains why a company like ITC sells everything from cigarettes to hotels to packaged foods. Each business shares some common resource — the brand, the distribution network, or the agricultural supply chain.

For a commerce student, understanding these concepts helps you answer questions like:

• Why do firms grow bigger? …