Q.Write short notes on (any two): Cell cycle.

The Cell Cycle: Why Cells Need a Schedule

Think of a cell as a tiny factory that has to make an exact copy of itself — every protein, every organelle, every strand of DNA. You can't just split in half randomly; that would be chaos. The cell follows a strict, ordered sequence called the cell cycle, which ensures that before a cell divides, it has first made a perfect duplicate of its entire genome and enough cellular machinery to support two daughter cells.

The entire cycle is divided into two broad phases: Interphase (the preparation phase) and M phase (the division phase). Interphase is long — typically 90% of the cycle — because copying everything takes time. M phase is short and dramatic.

Interphase: The Quiet Workhorse

Interphase is often mistakenly called the "resting phase." It is anything but restful. The cell is metabolically active, growing, and duplicating its DNA. Interphase is subdivided into three stages:

G1 phase (Gap 1) — The cell grows physically, synthesizes proteins, and produces organelles. It's also a checkpoint: if conditions are unfavourable (no nutrients, DNA damage), the cell may exit into a non-dividing state called G0. Most cells in your body are in G0.

S phase (Synthesis) — This is the critical moment: DNA replication. Each chromosome goes from one chromatid to two identical sister chromatids, held together at the centromere. By the end of S phase, the cell has twice the normal amount of DNA.

G2 phase (Gap 2) — The cell continues to grow and produces the proteins needed for division (like tubulin for spindle fibres). Another checkpoint verifies that DNA replication was complete and error-free.

M Phase: The Visible Drama

M phase is where the cell actually divides. It has two parts:

Mitosis — The nucleus divides. The duplicated chromosomes are separated equally into two daughter nuclei. Mitosis itself has four stages (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) that you will study in detail.

Cytokinesis — The cytoplasm divides, splitting the cell into two separate daughter cells. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow pinches the cell in half; in plant cells, a cell plate forms.

The Complete Picture

The cell cycle is usually written as:

$\text{G1} \rightarrow \text{S} \rightarrow \text{G2} \rightarrow \text{M} \rightarrow \text{Cytokinesis}$ …