An abundance of crops

Agriculture in Mughal India was not a single, fixed activity. It was organised around two major seasonal cycles: the kharif (autumn harvest) and the rabi (spring harvest). This meant that in most regions — except the most arid or inhospitable terrains — a minimum of two crops a year could be grown. This system was called do-fasla (double cropping). In areas where rainfall or irrigation assured a continuous supply of water, even three crops a year were possible.

This two-season cycle produced an enormous variety of produce. The Ain-i Akbari records that the Mughal province of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops across the two seasons, while Delhi produced 43. Bengal alone grew 50 varieties of rice. Such numbers show that agriculture was far from monotonous.

Beyond subsistence: cash crops and jins-i kamil

The focus on basic staples did not mean that agriculture was only for subsistence. The Mughal state actively encouraged peasants to cultivate certain crops that brought in more revenue. These were called jins-i kamil (literally, "perfect crops"). Cotton and sugarcane were the jins-i kamil par excellence. Cotton was grown over a great swathe of territory spread across central India and the Deccan plateau, while Bengal was famous for its sugar. Other cash crops included various sorts of oilseeds (for example, mustard) and lentils.

This shows how subsistence and commercial production were closely intertwined in an average peasant’s holding. A peasant would grow food grains for the family, but also set aside land for cash crops that could be sold in the market or used to pay revenue.

New crops from across the world

During the seventeenth century, several new crops from different parts of the world reached the Indian subcontinent. Maize (makka) was introduced via Africa and Spain, and by the seventeenth century it was listed as one of the major crops of western India. Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies were introduced from the New World at this time, as were fruits like the pineapple and the papaya.

The spread of tobacco is a particularly well-documented example. This plant arrived first in the Deccan and spread to northern India in the early years of the seventeenth century. The Ain does not mention tobacco in its lists of crops for northern India — Akbar and his nobles came across tobacco for the first time only in 1604. At this time, smoking tobacco (in hookahs or chillums) caught on in a big way. Jahangir was so concerned about its addictive effects that he banned it. The ban was totally ineffective. By the end of the seventeenth century, tobacco had become a major article of consumption, cultivation and trade all over India.

Agricultural prosperity and population growth …