The Zamindars

The zamindars were a class of people who lived off agriculture but did not plough the fields themselves. They were landed proprietors, and their superior status in rural society came from two main sources: caste and the performance of services (khidmat) for the state.

Personal lands and economic power

Zamindars held extensive personal lands called milkiyat (property). These were cultivated for the zamindar’s private use, often with hired or servile labour. The zamindar could sell, bequeath, or mortgage these lands at will.

A major source of their power was revenue collection. Zamindars often collected revenue on behalf of the state, for which they were compensated financially.

Military power

Control over military resources was another pillar of zamindari authority. Most zamindars maintained:

• Fortresses (qilachas)
• An armed contingent with cavalry, artillery, and infantry

If we picture social relations in the Mughal countryside as a pyramid, the zamindars formed its very narrow apex.

Social composition

Abu’l Fazl’s account shows that an “upper-caste” Brahmana-Rajput combine had already established firm control over rural society. There was also a fairly large representation from the so-called intermediate castes, as well as a liberal sprinkling of Muslim zamindaris.

Origins and expansion of zamindaris

Contemporary documents suggest that conquest was one source of origin for some zamindaris. A powerful military chieftain would dispossess weaker people to expand his zamindari. However, the state would not have allowed such aggression unless the zamindar had been confirmed by an imperial order (sanad).

More important were the slow processes of zamindari consolidation, which are also documented in sources:

• Colonisation of new lands
• Transfer of rights
• Order of the state
• Purchase

These processes allowed people from relatively “lower” castes to enter the ranks of zamindars, since zamindaris were bought and sold quite briskly in this period.

Clan-based zamindaris

A combination of factors allowed the consolidation of clan- or lineage-based zamindaris. For example:

• Rajputs and Jats used these strategies to consolidate control over vast territories in northern India.
• Peasant-pastoralists like the Sadgops carved out powerful zamindaris in central and south-western Bengal.

Role in the agrarian economy

Zamindars spearheaded the colonisation of agricultural land. They helped settle cultivators by providing them with the means of cultivation, including cash loans. The buying and selling of zamindaris accelerated the process of monetisation in the countryside. In addition, zamindars sold the produce from their milkiyat lands. There is evidence that zamindars often established markets (haats) where peasants also came to sell their produce.

Relationship with the peasantry …