Q.Highlight any four environmental concerns that have become important in global politics.

China’s economy before the late 1970s was indeed stagnant. Under Mao Zedong’s central planning, the country had achieved some industrialisation, but agriculture was collectivised, productivity was low, and the Cultural Revolution had disrupted production and education. By 1978, per capita income was barely above subsistence, and the country was isolated from global trade. Deng Xiaoping’s reforms from 1978 onward — decollectivising agriculture, opening up to foreign investment, establishing Special Economic Zones, and gradually allowing market mechanisms — broke that stagnation decisively. Growth rates averaged nearly 10% a year for three decades, lifting hundreds of millions out of poverty. So Statement-I is clearly true.

But that breakneck growth came at a steep price. China’s industrial expansion relied heavily on coal, and environmental regulations were weak or ignored in the rush for output. Air and water pollution reached crisis levels in many cities and river basins; soil contamination and desertification also worsened. The World Bank and Chinese government data both show that by the 2000s, China had become the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases and faced severe public health costs from pollution. So environmental degradation is an undeniable consequence. …

To understand this assertion and reason, we must first grasp the concepts of the 'welfare state' and 'globalisation'. A welfare state is a system where the government takes responsibility for the health, education, and social well-being of its citizens, providing a range of social services and economic security. This model gained prominence in many developed countries after World War II. Globalisation, on the other hand, refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries through the flow of goods, services, capital, technology, and people across borders.

Let's examine the Assertion (A): "All over the world, the old 'welfare state' is getting more importance."

This statement is generally false. While the idea of social protection remains crucial, the traditional 'welfare state' model, characterised by extensive state provision and high public spending, has faced significant challenges and, in many regions, a decline in its scope since the late 20th century. Factors like fiscal pressures, demographic changes, and the rise of neoliberal economic ideologies have led many governments to re-evaluate or even scale back their welfare provisions. Instead of gaining more importance in its traditional form, the welfare state has often been reformed, privatised, or subjected to austerity measures in various parts of the world.

Now, let's look at the Reason (R): "Due to globalisation, the state withdraws from many of its earlier welfare functions and the market has become the prime determinant of economic and social priorities." …

The question asks you to pick the statement that best captures the concept of globalisation. Let’s look at each option carefully, because the exam often tests not just a definition but your ability to distinguish the core idea from its effects or misconceptions.

Option (A) describes globalisation as “the process of rapid integration or inter-connection among countries of the world through the flow of goods, capital, people and ideas.” This is the most accurate and comprehensive definition. It captures the essence: globalisation is not a single event but a process, and it involves multiple dimensions — economic (goods and capital), social (people), and cultural/intellectual (ideas). The word “rapid” is important too, because while cross-border connections have existed for centuries, the speed and intensity of these flows have increased dramatically in recent decades.

Option (B) says globalisation has increased states’ capabilities in the political field. This is a claim about an effect of globalisation, not a definition of what globalisation itself is. Moreover, it is a contested claim — many scholars argue that globalisation actually reduces state sovereignty or shifts power to non-state actors. So even as a statement about effects, it is not universally accepted, and it certainly does not define the concept.

Option (C) states that globalisation has given consumers freedom to choose from limited alternatives. This is contradictory. If alternatives are limited, there is no real freedom of choice. In fact, globalisation typically expands the range of goods and services available to consumers, not restricts it. This option misrepresents the reality. …

The Kyoto Protocol emerged from a growing global recognition in the 1990s that climate change was not a distant threat but an unfolding crisis. Scientists had already established that rising concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases were trapping heat in the atmosphere, driving up average global temperatures. The question was no longer whether action was needed, but how to design an international framework that could actually compel countries to cut their emissions.

Adopted in 1997 at the third Conference of the Parties (COP3) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol was the first treaty to set legally binding emission reduction targets. Its core mechanism was straightforward: developed countries — listed in Annex I of the convention — were required to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by about 5% below 1990 levels during the first commitment period (2008–2012). This was not a voluntary pledge or a vague aspiration; it was a treaty obligation with compliance procedures.

Globalisation, the increasing interconnectedness of economies and societies worldwide, has brought both opportunities and challenges to India. While it has opened up new markets, fostered technological advancements, and increased consumer choice, it has also led to significant concerns, particularly regarding its impact on domestic industries and livelihoods. This dual nature of globalisation often sparks resistance from various sections of society who feel marginalised or negatively affected.

Assertion (A) states that resistance to globalisation in India has come from Trade Unions and workforce representing farmers' interests. This statement is accurate. Trade unions, representing organised labour, have historically voiced concerns about job security, potential wage depression due to increased competition, and the erosion of workers' rights in a globalised economy. They fear that multinational corporations (MNCs) might exploit cheaper labour or less stringent regulations, leading to job losses or poorer working conditions for domestic workers. Similarly, farmers' organisations have been at the forefront of protests against policies perceived to be detrimental to agricultural interests, such as the liberalisation of agricultural markets, increased imports of agricultural products, and the entry of large corporate players into farming.

Reason (R) posits that Multinational Corporations have damaged the interests of small-scale industries and agriculture. This statement is also largely true. MNCs, with their vast financial resources, advanced technology, and global supply chains, often possess a significant competitive advantage.

• For small-scale industries: The influx of cheaper, mass-produced goods from MNCs can make it incredibly difficult for local small-scale industries to compete. Many struggle to match the production efficiency, marketing budgets, or pricing strategies of these global giants, leading to reduced market share, financial distress, and even closures. This results in job losses and a decline in local economic activity. …

Globalisation describes the process by which economies, societies, and cultures become interconnected and interdependent across national boundaries. At its heart, it is a human phenomenon driven by exchange and interaction, not by natural physical processes.

When we think about what "flows" in globalisation, we are really asking: what moves across borders to create this interconnected world? The answer lies in several key dimensions:

• Ideas and knowledge – philosophies, scientific discoveries, cultural practices, political ideologies, and innovations spread from one society to another
• Goods and services – international trade carries products across continents
• Capital and investment – money flows between countries as businesses invest abroad and financial markets integrate
• People – migration, tourism, and the movement of workers link distant places
• Technology and information – the internet, telecommunications, and digital platforms enable instant communication worldwide

Among these, the flow of ideas stands as perhaps the most transformative dimension. Ideas shape how people think, what they value, and how societies organise themselves. When a management technique developed in Japan spreads to factories in Europe, when democratic principles inspire movements in different continents, when a musical genre born in one culture becomes global—these are all flows of ideas that fundamentally alter the world. …

Globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among countries, driven by the free flow of goods, services, capital, technology, ideas, and people across national borders. It's a multifaceted phenomenon that has reshaped economies, cultures, and political landscapes worldwide, making the world feel like a smaller, more integrated place. Understanding its causes helps us grasp why and how this transformation has occurred.

Several key factors have acted as catalysts for the acceleration of globalisation:

• Technological Advancements: Perhaps the most significant driver, rapid innovations in communication and transportation technologies have dramatically reduced the time and cost of connecting across vast distances. The internet, mobile phones, and satellite communication have made instant global communication a reality. Similarly, advancements in shipping and air travel have made it cheaper and faster to move goods and people around the world. These technologies dismantle geographical barriers, making global interactions more feasible and efficient.

• Flow of Capital: The liberalisation of financial markets has allowed capital to move more freely across borders. This includes foreign direct investment (FDI), where companies invest in businesses in other countries, as well as portfolio investment in stocks and bonds. The ease with which money can be transferred globally facilitates international trade, production, and financial integration, making economies more interdependent.

• Flow of Ideas: The spread of ideas, knowledge, and culture is another powerful engine of globalisation. This includes the dissemination of scientific and technological knowledge, management practices, political ideologies, and cultural trends (like music, fashion, and cuisine). The internet and global media play a crucial role in this, allowing ideas to transcend national boundaries rapidly and influence societies worldwide.

• Liberalisation of Trade and Investment Policies: Many countries have progressively reduced tariffs, quotas, and other barriers to international trade and investment. This policy shift, often encouraged by international organisations, has opened up markets, fostering greater competition and encouraging companies to operate on a global scale.

Now, let's consider the given options in light of these causes:

• (A) Flow of capital: As discussed, the movement of investment and financial resources across borders is a fundamental driver of economic globalisation, enabling businesses to expand internationally and integrating global financial markets. …

The phenomenon of displacement, where individuals or communities are forced to leave their homes, is a significant global humanitarian challenge. People become displaced for a variety of reasons, including armed conflict, widespread violence, persecution, human rights violations, and natural disasters, often exacerbated by climate change. These displaced individuals can be either internally displaced persons (IDPs), who remain within their own country, or refugees, who cross international borders seeking safety.

Africa consistently hosts the largest number of displaced people globally. This is a consequence of several complex and often interconnected factors:

• Protracted Conflicts and Violence: Many regions across Africa have experienced long-standing armed conflicts, civil wars, and insurgencies. Countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, and those in the Sahel region (such as Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger) have seen millions uprooted due to ongoing violence, ethnic tensions, and the activities of armed groups.
• Political Instability and Persecution: Political crises, coups, and governance issues often lead to widespread human rights abuses and persecution, forcing people to flee their homes to escape violence or discrimination.
• Climate Change Impacts: Africa is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including severe droughts, floods, and desertification. These environmental disasters destroy livelihoods, create food insecurity, and displace communities, often leading to competition over scarce resources and exacerbating existing conflicts.
• Economic Hardship: While not always the primary driver, severe economic hardship and lack of opportunities can also contribute to displacement, especially when combined with other factors like conflict or environmental degradation.

Globalisation is not the product of a single event or institution but rather a complex process driven by multiple forces. However, among the options presented, technology stands out as the primary engine that made the contemporary wave of globalisation possible.

The technological revolution of the late twentieth century fundamentally altered the landscape of international exchange. Advances in transportation—containerised shipping, jet aircraft, and improved logistics—slashed the cost and time of moving goods across continents. A product manufactured in one country could now reach markets thousands of miles away within days, not months. This physical connectivity laid the groundwork for integrated global supply chains.

Even more transformative was the revolution in information and communication technology. The internet, fiber-optic cables, satellites, and mobile networks created an instantaneous global communication infrastructure. Financial transactions that once took days could now be completed in milliseconds. A designer in Milan could collaborate in real time with a manufacturer in Vietnam. Knowledge, ideas, and cultural products began flowing across borders at unprecedented speed and scale. This digital connectivity didn't just facilitate trade; it created entirely new forms of economic activity and social interaction.

The New International Economic Order was not a single treaty or organisation — it was a declaration and a programme of action adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1974, pushed by the Non-Aligned Movement and the Group of 77. Its core demand was simple: restructure the world economy so that developing countries got fair prices for their raw materials, better access to Western markets, more control over their own resources, and a bigger say in institutions like the IMF and World Bank. For a brief moment in the 1970s, it looked like the Global South had the numbers and the oil-power to force change.

But by the late 1980s, the NIEO was effectively dead. Why?

First, the West never genuinely engaged. The United States and its allies saw the NIEO as a direct challenge to the liberal capitalist order. They blocked every concrete proposal — whether it was a common fund for commodity prices, a code of conduct for multinational corporations, or debt relief. Without the cooperation of the countries that controlled the world's finance, technology, and markets, the NIEO had no mechanism to enforce its demands. It remained a set of resolutions, not a binding reality.

Second, the developing world itself fractured. The NIEO assumed a unified "Third World" with shared interests. But by the 1980s, that unity was gone. Oil-exporting countries like Saudi Arabia and Nigeria had very different interests from oil-importing countries like India or Tanzania. Newly industrialising economies in East Asia were beginning to benefit from the existing system and had less incentive to overturn it. And many African and Latin American countries were sinking into debt — they needed loans from the IMF and World Bank, not confrontation with them. The solidarity that had made the NIEO possible in 1974 could not survive the debt crisis of 1982.

Third, the intellectual climate shifted. The 1970s had been a time when dependency theory and Third Worldism carried weight in universities and UN agencies. By the late 1980s, the rise of Reaganomics and Thatcherism had made free-market thinking dominant. The very idea that states should intervene to fix prices or control multinationals was now dismissed as outdated or harmful. Developing countries themselves began to abandon import-substitution and adopt export-oriented policies. The NIEO's vision of a planned, regulated global economy no longer matched the direction of policy anywhere. …