Q.Give one example each of a country that has followed centralised planning and a planning approach that India has increasingly followed since the 1991 reforms.

Real-world examples make the centralised-versus-indicative distinction concrete rather than purely theoretical.

Centralised planning example: The former Soviet Union is the standard historical example — the state owned the principal means of production and a central planning authority set compulsory, binding production targets across the economy, leaving essentially no independent role for private enterprise.

Indicative planning example: India, particularly from the economic reforms of 1991 onward, has moved substantially toward the indicative model — industrial licensing was progressively dismantled, private and foreign investment was opened up across most sectors, and the state's role shifted increasingly toward setting broad priorities and using fiscal/credit incentives to guide private investment, rather than directly commanding production decisions. This shift was reinforced institutionally in 2015, when the compulsory-target-setting Planning Commission was replaced …

Citing India as an example of PURE centralised planning throughout its history — India's planning always retained a substantial private/market sector alongside state direction in select sectors, and has moved further toward t …