Q.While eating peach or pear it is usually seen that some stone like structures get entangled in the teeth, what are these stone like structures called?

Stomatal Apparatus – From Intuition to Precision

Think of a leaf as a living factory. It needs carbon dioxide from the air as raw material for photosynthesis, and it must release oxygen as a waste product. At the same time, the leaf is constantly losing water vapour to the atmosphere — a process called transpiration. The leaf cannot afford to be a wide-open sieve; it would dry out. So it needs tiny, controllable doors.

Those doors are stomata (singular: stoma). Each stoma is a microscopic pore, usually on the underside of a leaf. But a pore alone is useless — it needs a mechanism to open and close. That mechanism, together with the pore and its associated cells, is the stomatal apparatus.

The Precise Definition

The guard cells are the key players. They are specialised epidermal cells, typically bean-shaped in dicots (like a kidney bean) and dumbbell-shaped in monocots (like a long dumbbell). Unlike ordinary epidermal cells, guard cells contain chloroplasts — they can photosynthesise.

The subsidiary cells are ordinary-looking epidermal cells that lie adjacent to the guard cells. They help in the mechanical movement of the guard cells and in maintaining the shape of the apparatus.

Structure in Detail

Let's break down each part.

The stoma is simply the gap between the two guard cells. When the guard cells are turgid (swollen with water), the gap is wide open. When they are flaccid (losing water), the gap narrows or closes completely.

Guard cells have a unique feature: their cell walls are unevenly thickened. The wall facing the pore (the inner wall) is thicker and less elastic. The wall away from the pore (the outer wall) is thinner and more elastic. This asymmetry is crucial for the opening mechanism.

Subsidiary cells are arranged around the guard cells. Their number and arrangement vary among plant families, but they always provide a supportive framework.

How It Opens and Closes – The Mechanism

This is where the concept comes alive. The opening and closing of stomata is driven by changes in turgor pressure inside the guard cells.

Opening:

1. Guard cells actively take up potassium ions ($K^+$) from the surrounding subsidiary cells. This is an energy-requiring process (using ATP from photosynthesis).
2. To balance the positive charge, chloride ions ($Cl^-$) also enter, and the guard cells synthesise malate ions ($C_4H_4O_5^{2-}$) internally.
3. The increased ion concentration lowers the water potential inside the guard cells.
4. Water enters the guard cells by osmosis from the neighbouring cells.
5. The guard cells swell. Because the outer wall is thinner and more elastic, it bulges outward more than the inner wall. This forces the two guard cells to curve apart, opening the pore.

Closing:

1. When the plant is water-stressed (or at night when photosynthesis stops), $K^+$ ions move out of the guard cells back into the subsidiary cells.
2. The ion concentration inside guard cells drops, water potential rises, and water leaves by osmosis. …