Q.Two statements as Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are given below. Read them carefully and choose the correct option : Assertion (A) : Zamindars in the Permanent Settlement failed to pay the revenue demand and unpaid balances accumulated. Reason (R) : According to the Sunset Law, if payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, the zamindari was liable to be auctioned. (A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of the Assertion (A). (B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of the Assertion (A). (C) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect. (D) Assertion (A) is incorrect, but Reason (R) is correct.

Let’s start with an everyday intuition. Imagine you own a small shop. The government tells you: “Pay us a fixed rent every year, no matter how much you earn. If you earn more, the extra is yours. If you earn less, you still have to pay the same amount.” That is the basic logic of the Permanent Settlement — except it was applied to land, not shops, and the “rent” was called revenue.

The British East India Company introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1793. Before this, the Company collected revenue from peasants through intermediaries called zamindars, but the amount changed every year based on the harvest. This created uncertainty for both the Company and the zamindars. The Company wanted a stable, predictable income. The zamindars wanted security — they did not want the government to keep raising the demand.

So the Company fixed the revenue demand permanently. The zamindar had to pay a fixed sum to the Company every year, on a fixed date. Whatever the zamindar collected from the peasants beyond that amount was his own profit. If he failed to pay, his land was auctioned off.

Now, what were the effects? This is what you need to understand for exams — not as a list to memorise, but as a chain of consequences.

For the zamindars: Many became absentee landlords. They lived in cities, spent their income on luxury, and left the actual management of the land to agents. The fixed revenue meant that if they could squeeze more from peasants, they kept the surplus. So they had every incentive to raise rents, impose illegal taxes, and evict tenants who could not pay. Over time, many zamindars fell into debt because the fixed revenue was too high for the actual productivity of the land. When they defaulted, their estates were sold — often to merchants, moneylenders, or richer zamindars. This created a new class of landowners who had no traditional connection to the land.

For the peasants (ryots): Life became harder. The zamindar’s demand was fixed, but the peasant’s income depended on the monsoon, pests, and prices. If the harvest failed, the peasant still had to pay the zamindar — who in turn had to pay the Company. The peasant had no security of tenure; he could be evicted at will. The Permanent Settlement did not protect the actual tiller of the soil. It created a system where the zamindar had absolute power over the peasant, and the peasant had no legal rights.

For the Company: The immediate goal was achieved — a stable, predictable revenue. But in the long run, the Company lost out. As land values rose over the 19th century, the Company could not increase its share. The zamindars, not the government, pocketed the rising profits from agriculture. This is why the British later abandoned the Permanent Settlement in other parts of India (like the Madras and Bombay Presidencies) and tried different systems like Ryotwari (direct settlement with the peasant) and Mahalwari (village-level settlement). …