History · Ch 4 — Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings — Cultural Developments
Symbols of worship
Symbols of worship
Why symbols, not statues?
Early Buddhist art did not show the Buddha in human form. Instead, sculptors represented him through symbols. To understand these sculptures, art historians first had to study the hagiographies — traditional biographies of the Buddha. These texts describe key events in the Buddha's life, and each symbol refers to one of those events.
The three main symbols
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The empty seat — This symbolises the Buddha's meditation. According to hagiographies, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. The empty seat (Fig. 4.14 in the textbook) indicates that moment of enlightenment, without showing the Buddha himself.
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The stupa — This represents the mahaparinibbana, the Buddha's final passing away (death and release from the cycle of rebirth). The stupa is a mound-like structure that contained relics of the Buddha, and early sculptors used it as a symbol of his ultimate departure.
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The wheel — This stands for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath. The wheel (dharmachakra) represents the "setting in motion of the wheel of dharma" — the Buddha's first teaching after his enlightenment.
Why literal reading fails
These sculptures cannot be understood literally. For example, a tree in the carving does not simply represent a tree. It symbolises the specific event of the Buddha's enlightenment under the Bodhi tree. The seat, the stupa, and the wheel each carry a meaning that only makes sense if you know the Buddhist tradition.
To interpret early Buddhist art correctly, historians must first learn the hagiographic traditions of the people who produced these works. Without that background, the symbols remain meaningless.
Summary table of symbols
| Symbol | Event in Buddha's life |
|--------|------------------------| …
The relief shows a scene of devotion centred on a tree. At the centre stands a large, leafy tree — the Bodhi tree, under which the Buddha is said to have gained enlightenment. Directly beneath the tree is an empty seat, usually a low platform or throne. No human figure of the Buddha is present. Instead, the empty seat indicates the spot where the Buddha sat in meditation, and the tree itself symbolises the enlightenment event.
Around the tree and seat, several human figures are shown in attitudes of worship. Some may be shown with folded hands, others bowing or offering garlands. The worshippers are likely lay devotees, monks, or celestial beings — the relief does not specify which, but the key point is their reverent posture toward the tree and seat.
The composition is not a literal scene of people watering a tree. The tree does not stand for a tree; it stands for the moment of the Buddha’s awakening. The empty seat does not mean no one is there; it means the Buddha’s presence is indicated by absence, a deliberate artistic choice. Early sculptors avoided showing the Buddha in human form, using symbols instead. This relief is a clear example: the Bodhi tree and the empty seat together represent the enlightenment, and the worshippers show that this event is worthy of veneration. …
Figure 4.15 is a stone relief panel, likely from a railing or gateway of a stupa (such as those at Sanchi or Bharhut). It shows a group of worshippers — men and women, some with folded hands, others bowing or offering garlands — gathered around a large, dome-shaped structure. That structure is a stupa, but it is not just any stupa: it is the symbol of the Buddha’s mahaparinibbana — his final passing away, the complete release from the cycle of rebirth.
The stupa itself is the central object. It is shown as a solid, rounded mound with a harmika (a square railing-like platform on top) and a crowning umbrella (chhatri). Around it, the worshippers are arranged in a respectful, circumambulatory posture — some facing the stupa, others walking around it in a clockwise direction (pradakshina). The relief does not show the Buddha in human form anywhere. Instead, the stupa is the Buddha’s presence, specifically his absence after death. This is the key point the textbook makes: early sculptors avoided showing the Buddha as a person and used symbols to mark events in his life. The empty seat (Fig. 4.14) stood for his enlightenment; the wheel (Fig. 4.16) stood for his first sermon; and the stupa (Fig. 4.15) stood for his mahaparinibbana.
The layout is simple but deliberate. The stupa occupies the centre of the composition, larger than the human figures, making it the focal point. The worshippers are smaller and arranged in a semicircle or line around it, their gestures of devotion directing the viewer’s eye back to the stupa. There are no arrows or labels in the original relief — the meaning comes from the context of the scene and the tradition of the sculptors. The worshippers are not just paying homage to a monument; they are venerating the event of the Buddha’s final liberation. The stupa, as a symbol, transforms a physical structure into a narrative of the Buddha’s life and death. …
The figure shows a stone relief carving, a common feature on early Buddhist stupa gateways (toranas) and railings. At the centre of the composition is a large wheel (chakra) mounted on a short pillar. The wheel has multiple spokes and a rim, and is clearly the focal point of the scene.
On either side of the wheel, two deer are shown kneeling or seated, facing the wheel. Their presence is a direct reference to the Deer Park (Mrgadava) at Sarnath, where the Buddha delivered his first sermon. Below the wheel, there is often a small platform or base, and sometimes worshippers or celestial figures are carved in the surrounding spaces, though the exact arrangement varies across different versions of this motif.
The wheel itself is the key symbol: it represents the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta — the "Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma" — the Buddha's first sermon. The deer confirm the location as Sarnath. The entire composition is aniconic: the Buddha is not shown in human form. Instead, his presence and the pivotal event of his teaching career are conveyed entirely through the wheel and the deer. …