History · Ch 4 — Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings — Cultural Developments
The structure of the stupa
The structure of the stupa
The stupa began as a simple heap of earth. The word itself comes from Sanskrit, meaning “a heap.” The earliest form was a semi-circular mound called the anda (literally, “egg”), which symbolised the cosmic egg or the origin of the world. Over time, the structure became more complex, deliberately balancing round and square shapes — a design that carried deep symbolic meaning.
Above the anda rose the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods. From the harmika rose a mast called the yashti, often topped with a chhatri (umbrella), a symbol of royalty and honour. Around the entire mound ran a stone railing, which separated the sacred space of the stupa from the ordinary, secular world outside.
Why were stupas built?
The Mahaparinibbana Sutta (part of the Sutta Pitaka) records a crucial exchange. As the Buddha lay dying, his disciple Ananda asked what should be done with his remains. The Buddha first told him not to trouble himself with honouring the remains, but to focus on his own spiritual progress. Pressed further, the Buddha instructed:
At the four crossroads they should erect a thupa (the Pali word for stupa) to the Tathagata. And whosoever shall there place garlands or perfume … or make a salutation there, or become in its presence calm of heart, that shall long be to them for a profit and joy.
So stupas were built to house the relics of the Buddha (or of other revered monks and teachers). They became focal points for devotion — places where laypeople could offer flowers, incense, and salutations, and where the very act of standing before the stupa with a calm heart was believed to bring spiritual benefit and joy.
The Great Stupa at Sanchi: plan and elevation
The Great Stupa at Sanchi is the most famous example. Its plan (a horizontal, top-down view) shows the circular mound, the surrounding railing, and the four gateways placed at the cardinal points. Its elevation (a vertical, side-on view) reveals the height of the anda, the harmika above it, the yashti mast, and the chhatri umbrella at the top.
- From the plan, the circular shape of the mound and the square shape of the harmika are clearest, as is the layout of the railing and the four gateways.
- From the elevation, the vertical progression from base to chhatri is best seen, along with the relative proportions of the anda, harmika, and mast.
How worshippers used the stupa
Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and then walked around the mound in a clockwise direction (pradakshina), keeping the mound on their right. This movement imitated the sun’s course through the sky — a practice that linked the act of worship to the cosmic order.
Early versus later stupas
| Feature | Early stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut) | Later stupas (Amaravati, Shah-ji-ki-Dheri) |
|---|---|---|
| Mound | Plain, unadorned | Elaborately carved with niches and sculptures |
| Railing | Stone, but designed to resemble a bamboo or wooden fence | More ornate |
| Gateways | Richly carved, installed at the four cardinal points | Similarly placed, but carving styles evolved |
The plan of the Great Stupa at Sanchi is a bird’s-eye, horizontal view of the monument as seen from directly above. It shows the entire structure laid out on the ground, making the geometric arrangement of its parts immediately visible.
At the centre is the anda — the large, solid, semi-circular mound of earth and brick that forms the main body of the stupa. In the plan, this appears as a large circle. Above the anda (though not visible in a ground plan) would be the harmika and the yashti with its chhatri, but the plan focuses on the footprint of the building.
Surrounding the anda is a circular railing (called a vedika), which separates the sacred mound from the outside world. The plan shows this railing as a thick ring, with a clear gap between it and the anda — this gap is the pradakshina patha, the circular walkway used by worshippers for clockwise circumambulation.
At the four cardinal points — north, south, east, and west — the railing is broken by four richly carved gateways (called toranas). In the plan, these are shown as rectangular projections jutting outward from the railing. The eastern gateway was the main entrance, through which worshippers entered before walking clockwise around the mound.
The plan also makes clear the symmetry of the stupa: the anda is perfectly centred, the railing is a concentric circle, and the four gateways are evenly spaced at 90° intervals. This layout was not just aesthetic — it reflected the cosmic order, with the mound representing the axis of the world and the cardinal gateways aligning with the four directions. …
Figure 4.10b is a vertical drawing — an elevation — of the Great Stupa at Sanchi. Unlike a plan, which shows the building from above, an elevation shows it from the side, so you can see its height and the stacking of its parts.
The drawing makes the stupa’s three-tiered vertical structure immediately clear. At the bottom is the anda, the large, solid, semi-circular mound. The textbook explains that the word stupa originally meant “a heap,” and the anda is that ancient heap made permanent in stone. Above the anda sits the harmika, a small, square, balcony-like structure. The text says the harmika represented the abode of the gods — it is the transition point between the earthly mound and the heavenly realm above. Rising from the centre of the harmika is the yashti, a tall mast or pole. At the very top of the yashti is the chhatri, an umbrella-like finial. The chhatri is a symbol of royalty and honour, and here it marks the stupa as a place of supreme veneration.
The elevation also shows the railing that encircles the entire mound at ground level. In the drawing, this railing appears as a low, horizontal band separating the sacred mound from the outside world. The text notes that early railings were plain and deliberately made to look like bamboo or wooden fences, even though they were carved in stone. The four gateways (toranas) are not visible in this side view — they would be seen in the plan or in a photograph — but the elevation makes clear that the railing is a continuous barrier with openings only at the cardinal points. …