Q.Describe any three elements of consensus that appear to have emerged among most political parties in India in the midst of severe competition and many conflicts.

After India gained independence in 1947, the question of reorganising the internal boundaries of states became a significant challenge. The colonial administration had drawn provincial boundaries largely for administrative convenience or based on territories conquered, without much regard for linguistic or cultural homogeneity. Many leaders, including Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, initially feared that reorganising states on linguistic lines might lead to disunity and further fragmentation of the newly independent nation.

However, the demand for linguistic states was strong and deeply rooted, particularly in South India. The Indian National Congress itself had, since its Nagpur session in 1920, reorganised its own provincial committees on a linguistic basis, acknowledging the principle. This historical stance fueled expectations among various linguistic groups that independent India would follow suit.

In the old Madras province, a large and vocal section of the population spoke Telugu, distinct from the Tamil-speaking majority. For many years, there had been a persistent demand from the Telugu-speaking people for a separate state, to be called Andhra, arguing that their language and culture were distinct and deserved their own administrative unit. This demand was not new; it had been a significant political issue for decades.

Despite these long-standing demands, the central government remained hesitant. This reluctance led to growing frustration among the Telugu-speaking population. A prominent Congress leader, Potti Sriramulu, took up the cause with immense dedication. He began a fast unto death in October 1952, demanding the creation of a separate Andhra state.

The phrase 'Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram' is one of the most colourful and telling expressions in Indian political history. It captures the chaotic practice of political defections — where elected legislators would switch parties frequently, often for personal gain or ministerial positions. The phrase itself became a shorthand for the instability and opportunism that plagued state governments in the post-Independence era.

The origin of this phrase lies in the politics of Haryana in the late 1960s. At that time, Haryana had been carved out of Punjab in 1966, and its political landscape was highly fluid. In 1967, a legislator named Gaya Lal, who had been elected as a member of the Indian National Congress, defected to the opposition United Front. Within a short span — reportedly just a few weeks — he switched sides multiple times, returning to the Congress and then defecting again. The frequency and audacity of his defections became a public joke.

It was the then Chief Minister of Haryana, Rao Birendra Singh, who famously remarked, "Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram" — a pun on the legislator's name, Gaya Ram, and the Hindi words for "came Ram, went Ram." The phrase caught on immediately and entered the lexicon of Indian politics. It was used to mock the lack of ideological commitment among politicians who would change parties as easily as changing clothes.

Let’s take each item in List-I and think about what it actually refers to.

1. Violation of Human Rights – This is a broad term, but in the context of this question, it is linked to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990. That invasion led to widespread reports of human rights abuses by Iraqi forces against Kuwaiti civilians, including torture, executions, and looting. So (a) matches with (iv).
2. ‘Mad-Cow’ disease – This is Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), a cattle disease that caused a major health crisis in the 1990s. It was first identified and became a massive public concern in Britain (the UK). So (b) matches with (i).
3. Disarmament Treaty – The phrase “Disarmament Treaty” here refers specifically to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which is a major international treaty banning chemical weapons and requiring their destruction. It is the most famous disarmament treaty of its kind. So (c) matches with (ii). …

The formation of states in independent India has been a long and sometimes contentious process, driven by linguistic, cultural, and administrative demands. The four pairs in this question — Gujarat, Haryana, Meghalaya, and Chhattisgarh — each emerged from a different parent state at a different moment in time. Let us walk through each one.

Gujarat was created on 1 May 1960, when the bilingual Bombay State was split into two linguistic states: Gujarat (for Gujarati speakers) and Maharashtra (for Marathi speakers). So Gujarat was carved out of Bombay.

Haryana was formed on 1 November 1966, when the larger Punjab state was divided on a linguistic-cum-cultural basis. The Hindi-speaking areas of Punjab became Haryana, while the Punjabi-speaking areas remained as Punjab (with a smaller territory). Haryana thus came from Punjab.

Meghalaya was initially created as an autonomous state within Assam in 1970, and became a full-fledged state on 21 January 1972. It was carved out of the hill districts of Assam to give separate political identity to the Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo tribal communities.

Chhattisgarh was formed on 1 November 2000, when the large central state of Madhya Pradesh was split. The eastern, predominantly tribal and forested region became Chhattisgarh, while the rest remained Madhya Pradesh. So Chhattisgarh came from Madhya Pradesh. …

After India achieved independence in 1947, the challenge of reorganizing its internal administrative boundaries became a critical task. The existing provinces were largely a legacy of British colonial rule, often drawn for administrative convenience rather than reflecting the linguistic or cultural identities of the people. Across the country, there was a strong popular demand for states to be reorganized along linguistic lines, as language was widely seen as a fundamental aspect of shared identity and culture.

The demand for a separate state for Telugu-speaking people, to be carved out of the Madras Presidency, was particularly intense and long-standing. This movement, often referred to as the Andhra movement, gained significant momentum in the early years of independent India.

A pivotal moment in this movement was the fast unto death undertaken by Potti Sriramulu in 1952. He demanded the creation of an Andhra State specifically for Telugu speakers. His tragic death after 58 days of fasting ignited widespread protests, unrest, and demonstrations across the Telugu-speaking regions.

In response to the overwhelming public pressure and the volatile situation, the Government of India announced the formation of Andhra State in October 1953. This was a landmark decision, as it marked the first time a state in independent India was created solely on a linguistic basis. Kurnool was designated as its capital. …

The global community has increasingly recognized the critical need to balance human development with environmental protection. This awareness has led to the formulation of international agreements, national policies, and overarching concepts designed to guide our interactions with the planet. Understanding these initiatives is crucial for addressing contemporary environmental challenges.

Let us examine each item in detail:

1. Kyoto Protocol

   The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, and it came into force in 2005. It is an extension of the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The core objective of the Kyoto Protocol is to combat global warming by setting legally binding targets for industrialized countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. These gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, are primarily responsible for trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to climate change. The Protocol established mechanisms like emissions trading and the Clean Development Mechanism to help countries meet their targets.

   Important

   The Kyoto Protocol was a landmark agreement because it was the first to set legally binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions for developed countries.

   Therefore, the Kyoto Protocol aims to cut greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Electricity Act of 2003, India

   The Electricity Act of 2003 was a significant piece of legislation enacted by the Parliament of India. Its primary goal was to consolidate the laws relating to the generation, transmission, distribution, trading, and use of electricity, and generally to take measures conducive to the development of the electricity industry. A key aspect of this Act was its forward-looking approach to energy sources. It specifically included provisions to promote the development of renewable energy sources and rural electrification, aiming to create a more competitive and efficient power sector while also addressing environmental concerns. The Act mandated State Electricity Regulatory Commissions to promote co-generation and generation of electricity from renewable sources.

   Therefore, the Electricity Act of 2003, India, encourages use of renewable energy.

3. Agenda 21

   Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action that emerged from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), popularly known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development. The '21' in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st century, signifying its forward-looking vision. It outlines a broad range of actions that can be taken globally, nationally, and locally by UN organizations, governments, and major groups in every area where humans impact the environment. These actions cover social and economic dimensions, conservation and management of resources for development, strengthening the role of major groups, and means of implementation. Essentially, it provides a blueprint for achieving sustainable development in the 21st century. …

The North-Eastern region of India is a distinct geographical and cultural zone, comprising eight states often called the "Seven Sisters" plus Sikkim. These states are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim. The question tests your ability to identify which states belong only to this region, without mixing in states from other parts of India.

Let's examine each option carefully.

Option (a) lists Assam, Manipur, and Chhattisgarh. Assam and Manipur are indeed North-Eastern states. But Chhattisgarh is a central Indian state, carved out of Madhya Pradesh. It lies far west of the North-East, bordering Odisha, Jharkhand, and Maharashtra. So this set is incorrect.

Option (b) gives Manipur, Tripura, and Nagaland. All three are core members of the "Seven Sisters" — Manipur and Nagaland share a border, and Tripura lies to the southwest of Assam. Every one of these is a North-Eastern state. This is the correct set.

Option (c) includes Jharkhand, Nagaland, and Uttarakhand. Nagaland is North-Eastern, but Jharkhand is in eastern India (carved from Bihar) and Uttarakhand is in the northern Himalayan region (carved from Uttar Pradesh). Neither belongs to the North-East. So this option fails.

Option (d) lists Manipur, Maharashtra, and Mizoram. Manipur and Mizoram are both North-Eastern states. Maharashtra, however, is a western Indian state on the Arabian Sea coast, with Mumbai as its capital. It is nowhere near the North-East. Hence this set is also wrong. …

In Indian politics, the term "defection" refers to a legislator switching allegiance from the political party on whose ticket they were elected to another party, often for personal gain or political advantage rather than ideological conviction. This practice has historically been a significant challenge to political stability and democratic principles. The colourful phrase "Aya Ram Gaya Ram" perfectly encapsulates the essence of this opportunistic and frequent party switching.

The origin of this iconic phrase dates back to 1967, a period marked by considerable political fluidity and instability, particularly in several North Indian states. The incident that gave birth to "Aya Ram Gaya Ram" involved a Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA) from Haryana named Gaya Lal.

• On a single day in 1967, Gaya Lal, who was initially elected as an independent candidate, first joined the Indian National Congress.
• Within hours, he defected from the Congress to the United Front.
• Shortly thereafter, he switched back to the Congress.

When Gaya Lal returned to the Congress, Rao Birender Singh, a prominent Congress leader at the time, brought him before the press and famously declared, "Gaya Ram was now Aya Ram." This statement, referring to Gaya Lal's rapid changes of allegiance, instantly captured the public imagination and became a widely used idiom.