Q.Give any two examples of international events where India took an independent stand.

India's foreign policy after independence was shaped by a determination to chart its own course in a world rapidly dividing into hostile camps. Nehru and his colleagues believed that newly independent nations should not become pawns in superpower rivalries, and that moral principles rather than military alliances should guide international conduct. This commitment to strategic autonomy was tested repeatedly in the 1950s, when global crises forced countries to choose sides.

The Suez Crisis of 1956 offered a clear demonstration of India's independent stance. When Britain, France, and Israel launched a coordinated military attack on Egypt after President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, India condemned the aggression unequivocally. This was a bold position: Britain was the former colonial power with which India still maintained Commonwealth ties, yet India sided firmly with Egypt's sovereign right to control its own waterway. India took the matter to the United Nations and supported international pressure that eventually forced the attackers to withdraw. The episode showed that India would not let old colonial relationships dictate its positions on questions of sovereignty and territorial integrity.

The statement confuses the identity of the warring parties. In November 1971, the entity that fought a full-scale war with India was Pakistan, not Bangladesh. At that time, Bangladesh was still East Pakistan — a province of Pakistan. The war itself was the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, triggered by the political and humanitarian crisis in East Pakistan following the Pakistani military's brutal crackdown on the Bengali independence movement.

The sequence of events is important. In March 1971, after the Awami League won a landslide election in Pakistan but was denied power, East Pakistan declared independence as Bangladesh. The Pakistani army responded with a violent suppression, causing millions of refugees to flee into India. India initially provided diplomatic and material support to the Mukti Bahini (Bengali freedom fighters), but direct military intervention came only after months of escalating tensions. …

Foreign policy is never made in a vacuum. Every country’s approach to the world is a product of pressures and priorities that come from two broad directions: what is happening inside its borders, and what is happening beyond them. To say that only cultural factors, or only economic factors, or only domestic factors determine foreign policy would be to ignore the rich, tangled reality of how nations actually behave.

Think of domestic factors first. These include a country’s political system, its economic needs, its historical experiences, its public opinion, and the interests of powerful groups within society. For example, a democracy may find its foreign policy constrained by what voters will tolerate, while an authoritarian regime might have more freedom to pursue long-term strategic goals without immediate popular backlash. Economic conditions — such as a need for oil, markets for exports, or access to foreign capital — also push foreign policy in particular directions. Cultural and ideological factors matter too: a nation’s sense of identity, its religious traditions, or its belief in a certain political ideology can shape whom it allies with or opposes. …

Part (a)

During the Cold War, India and China were estranged — scarred by the 1962 border war, China's alignment with Pakistan, and ideological distance. After the Soviet collapse in 1991 and India's own economic liberalisation, pragmatism replaced ideology. The most striking change has been the explosion of bilateral trade: from a few hundred million dollars in the early 1990s to tens of billions, making China one of India's largest trading partners, alongside deeper diplomatic engagement through forums like BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. The border dispute remains unresolved (as the Doklam and Galwan episodes show), but economic interdependence marks a clear post-Cold-War change.

Part (b) …