Q.(a) Name four complimentary bases present in a DNA molecule. (1 mark)
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🔒 Start your 14-day free trial to unlock the full solution →Concept understanding — Amino Acid Classification
Amino Acid Classification: From Intuition to Precision
Imagine you're building with LEGO blocks. You have many different pieces — some are long, some are short, some have bumps on the side, some are flat. But all of them have one thing in common: they all click onto the same base plate. That's exactly what amino acids are like. They are the building blocks of proteins, and every single one of them shares a common "base plate" — a core structure — but differs in a side chain that gives each its unique personality.
The Common Core: What Every Amino Acid Shares
Every amino acid has a central carbon atom (called the α-carbon) bonded to four groups:
- An amino group (−NH2)
- A carboxyl group (−COOH)
- A hydrogen atom (−H)
- A variable side chain (called the R group)
The R group is what makes each of the 20 standard amino acids different. It's like the unique shape and colour of each LEGO piece. The classification of amino acids is really just a way of grouping them based on what their R groups are like.
The Big Picture: Why Classify?
You classify things to understand their behaviour. In a crowded room, you might group people by height, or by what they're wearing. Similarly, amino acids are classified to predict how they will behave in water, how they interact with each other, and what role they play in a protein's structure. The most fundamental classification is based on polarity — essentially, how the R group interacts with water.
The Five Major Classes (with Intuition)
1. Nonpolar (Hydrophobic) Amino Acids
Intuition: These R groups are like oil. They hate water. They prefer to hide inside a protein, away from the watery environment of the cell.
What they look like: Their R groups are made mostly of carbon and hydrogen — no charged or polar groups. They are "greasy."
Examples: Glycine (the smallest, just a hydrogen), Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Methionine, Proline (has a ring that connects back to the amino group), Phenylalanine, Tryptophan.
Proline is unique — its R group forms a ring that includes the amino nitrogen, making it rigid and often causing "kinks" in protein chains.
2. Polar, Uncharged Amino Acids
Intuition: These R groups are like sugar. They dissolve in water but carry no net electric charge. They are "friendly" with water but don't have a full positive or negative charge.
What they look like: Their R groups contain oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur atoms that can form hydrogen bonds with water.
Examples: Serine, Threonine, Cysteine (has a sulfur atom that can form disulfide bonds), Asparagine, Glutamine.
Cysteine is often grouped here, but its sulfur atom can form a special covalent bond (disulfide bridge) with another cysteine. This is a strong, permanent link — not a weak interaction like hydrogen bonds.
3. Positively Charged (Basic) Amino Acids
Intuition: These R groups carry a positive charge at physiological pH (around 7.4). They are like magnets with a "+" sign — they attract negatively charged things.
What they look like: Their R groups contain an extra amino group (−NH2) that picks up a proton (H+) to become −NH3+.
Examples: Lysine, Arginine, Histidine.
Histidine is special — its charge changes near physiological pH. This makes it a common player in enzyme active sites where it can act as a proton donor or acceptor.
4. Negatively Charged (Acidic) Amino Acids
Intuition: These R groups carry a negative charge at physiological pH. They are like magnets with a "−" sign — they attract positively charged things.
What they look like: Their R groups contain an extra carboxyl group (−COOH) that loses a proton to become −COO−.
Examples: Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid.
5. Aromatic Amino Acids
Intuition: These have a ring structure (a benzene ring) in their R group. They absorb ultraviolet light — a property used to measure protein concentration.
What they look like: They contain a planar, ring-shaped structure.
Examples: Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan.
Tyrosine and Tryptophan absorb UV light at 280 nm. This is how scientists measure protein concentration in a lab — a quick and dirty method.
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Why this formula?
Amino Acid Classification: Why the Groupings Make Sense
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, and their classification isn't arbitrary — it's based on the chemical properties of their side chains (R-groups). Understanding why these groups behave as they do is key to mastering biochemistry for exams.
The Core Idea: The R-Group Dictates Everything
Every amino acid has a common backbone:
- Amino group (NH2)
- Carboxyl group (COOH)
- Hydrogen atom (H)
- Variable side chain (R)
The R-group determines:
- Polarity
- Charge at physiological pH (~7.4)
- Hydrogen bonding ability
- Hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity
The Five Major Classes (and Why They Exist)
1. Nonpolar, Aliphatic (Hydrophobic) R-Groups
Examples: Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Methionine, Proline
Why they're nonpolar:
- The R-group consists of only carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbon chains).
- Carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativity (χC≈2.55, χH≈2.20), so no significant dipole forms.
- Water is polar; "like dissolves like" — these side chains avoid water and cluster in protein interiors.
Key exam point: Methionine has a sulfur atom, but the CH3SCH2CH2− group is still nonpolar because the C–S bond is nearly nonpolar.
2. Aromatic R-Groups
Examples: Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan
Why they're special:
- Contain benzene rings (conjugated π systems).
- The delocalized electrons make them planar and rigid.
- Phenylalanine is purely hydrophobic (no polar groups on ring).
- Tyrosine has an –OH group → can form hydrogen bonds (partially polar).
- Tryptophan has an indole ring with a nitrogen — can donate H-bonds.
Why they absorb UV light: The conjugated π system has a small HOMO-LUMO gap, absorbing at ~280 nm — used to measure protein concentration.
3. Polar, Uncharged R-Groups
Examples: Serine, Threonine, Cysteine, Asparagine, Glutamine
Why they're polar but uncharged:
- Contain electronegative atoms (O, N, S) that create partial charges.
- Serine/Threonine: –OH group can donate and accept hydrogen bonds.
- Cysteine: –SH group can form disulfide bonds (–S–S–) — critical for protein structure.
- Asparagine/Glutamine: –CONH2 group has both carbonyl oxygen (H-bond acceptor) and amide hydrogen (H-bond donor).
Why they're uncharged at pH 7: The –OH, –SH, and –CONH2 groups do not ionize significantly at physiological pH.
4. Positively Charged (Basic) R-Groups
Examples: Lysine, Arginine, Histidine
Why they're basic (proton acceptors):
- Lysine: Has an ϵ-amino group (–CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2). The lone pair on nitrogen accepts a proton: –NH2+H+⇌–NH3+ pKa ≈ 10.5 → protonated at pH 7.
- Arginine: Guanidino group (–NH–C(NH2)=NH) is resonance-stabilized when protonated — extremely basic (pKa ≈ 12.5).
- Histidine: Imidazole ring has pKa ≈ 6.0 — unique because it can be neutral or positively charged near physiological pH, making it a key catalytic residue in enzymes.
5. Negatively Charged (Acidic) R-Groups
Examples: Aspartic Acid, Glutamic Acid
Why they're acidic (proton donors):
- Contain a second carboxyl group (–COOH).
- At pH 7, the carboxyl group loses its proton: –COOH⇌–COO−+H+ …
- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine.
- Vitamin E (deficiency causes muscular weakness and increased RBC fragility).
- D-glucose + NH2OH→ glucose oxime, CH2OH−(CHOH)4−CH=N−OH (the −CHO converts to −CH=NOH). Or: (d) Denaturation is the loss of a protein's native 3-D structure (and biological activity) when heat/pH/etc. disrupt the H-bonds holding its secondary/tertiary structure, without breaking the peptide bonds. (e) Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body and must come from diet (e.g. valine); non-essential amino acids can be synthesised by the body (e.g. glyc …
DNA's four bases, the vitamin behind muscular weakness, and glucose's reaction with hydroxylamine are covered directly. (Or: protein denaturation and the essential/non-essential amino acid distinction are explained with examples.)
- The four complementary bases in DNA DNA carries two purines and two pyrimidines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) (purines); Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T) (pyrimidines). They pair complementarily via H-bonds: A with T (2 H-bonds), G with C (3 H-bonds).
- Vitamin whose deficiency causes muscular weakness Vitamin E (tocopherol) deficiency causes muscular weakness and increases the fragility of red blood cells; it also affects fertility, which is why it is sometimes called the antisterility vitamin.
- D-glucose with hydroxylamine Glucose's free aldehyde group is characteristically detected by its reaction with NH2OH (hydroxylamine), which condenses with the carbonyl to form an oxime: CH2OH−(CHOH)4−CHONH2OHCH2OH−(CHOH)4−CH=N−OH This reaction (along with cyanohydrin formation) is one of the classic pieces of evidence for the presence of a free −CHO group in the open-chain form of glucose. …
Showing the 12 most recent of 23 on this concept.
- CBSE 2026Set A1 markMCQQ.Which of the following is capable of forming Zwitter ion ?(a) H2N-CH2COOH(b) CH3COOH(c) CH3CH2NH2(d) CH3NO2
›Reveal solutionSolution
A zwitter ion needs both an acidic and a basic group in the same molecule; only the amino acid glycine (H2N-CH2COOH) fits.
A zwitter ion (internal salt) carries both a positive and a negative charge in the same molecule. This requires a proton-donating group and a proton-accepting group together. In glycine, the -COOH transfers its proton to the -NH2, giving the dipolar form:
H3N(+)-CH2-COO(-)
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- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Essential amino acid among the following is(a) Glycine(b) Valine(c) Proline(d) Tyrosine
›Reveal solutionSolution
Essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by the human body and must come from food; non-essential ones can be synthesised in the body.
Glycine, proline and tyrosine are all non-essential amino acids the body can make on its own. Valine, however, is one of the standard essential amino acid …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markQ.Name one optically active amino acid and one optically inactive amino acid.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Glycine is the one amino acid whose α-carbon is not chiral (two H atoms attached), so it alone among the common amino acids is optically inactive; all the others, such as alanine, are optically active.
Optically active example — alanine
Alanine, CH3−C∗H(NH2)−COOH, has its α-carbon bonded to four different groups: −CH3, −NH2, −COOH, and −H. This makes it a chiral (asymmetric) centre, so alanine exists as a pair of enantiomers and rotates the plane of plane-polarised light — it is optically active.
Optically inactive example — glycine
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- CBSE 2025Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Example of essential amino acid is:(a) Glycine(b) Alanine(c) Tyrosine(d) Valine
›Reveal solutionSolution
An essential amino acid is one the body cannot synthesise on its own and must get from food; among the options, only valine is essential.
Amino acids are classed as essential or non-essential based on whether the human body can synthesise them internally.
- Glycine and Alanine: both are non-essential amino acids; the body can synthesise them from other metabolites. …
- CBSE 2025Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Non-essential amino acid is -(a) Valine(b) Leucine(c) Lysine(d) Glycine
›Reveal solutionSolution
Essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by the human body and must be supplied through diet; non-essential amino acids can be synthesised by the body itself.
- Valine, Leucine and Lysine are classic ESSENTIAL amino acids (the body cannot make them; they must come from food). …
- CBSE 2025Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.The optically inactive amino acid is –(a) Alanine(b) Glycine(c) Valine(d) Aspartic acid
›Reveal solutionSolution
Glycine's α-carbon carries two identical hydrogen atoms, so it has no chiral centre and is the only optically inactive amino acid among the options.
Most naturally occurring α-amino acids are chiral (optically active), since their α-carbon is bonded to four different groups: −NH2, −COOH, −H, and a distinct side chain (R group).
Glycine is the sole exception: its side chain (R group) is simply another hydrogen atom, so its α-carbon is bonded to −NH2, −COOH, and two identical −H atoms. With only three distinct groups (not four different ones), glycine's α-carbon is not a stereocentre, making glycine the only common amino acid that is optically inactive (achiral).
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- CBSE 2024Set ANNUAL1 markQ.Proteins on hydrolysis give ______.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Complete hydrolysis of a protein (by acids, alkalis, or enzymes) breaks all its peptide bonds and yields a mixture of alpha-amino acids.
Proteins are polymers (polypeptides) built from alpha-amino acid monomers linked together by amide (peptide) bonds, -CO-NH-, formed between the -COOH group of one amino acid and the -NH2 group of the next, with loss of a water molecule at each linkage.
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- CBSE 2023Set A1 markQ.Answer in one word/sentence: Write the name of monomer of proteins.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Proteins are polymers built from amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds.
Proteins are polypeptides — long chains of α-amino acids joined together through peptide (amide, -CONH-) bonds formed by condensation between the -CO …
- CBSE 2023Set ANNUAL1 markQ.Write an example of essential amino acid.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Essential amino acids are amino acids the human body cannot synthesise and must obtain from the diet; valine is one example.
Amino acids are classified as essential or non-essential based on whether the human body can synthesise them internally.
- Essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by the body in adequate amounts and must be supplied through food. Examples include valine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and histidine.
- Non-essential amino acids (e.g. glycine, alanine, serine) can be synthesised by the body itself. …
- CBSE 2023Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Which of the following is a basic amino acid?(a) Alanine(b) Aspartic acid(c) Glycine(d) Lysine
›Reveal solutionSolution
A basic amino acid carries an extra basic (amino/guanidino) group on its side chain, giving it a net positive charge and higher isoelectric point.
Amino acids are classed as acidic, basic or neutral depending on the relative number of –NH₂ and –COOH groups. Lysine's side chain carries an additional –NH₂ group (making it diamino-monocarboxylic), so it has more basic groups than acidic ones and is a basic amin …
- CBSE 2022Set zoology-sz1 markQ.Who was the first to record an Essential Amino Acid?
›Reveal solutionSolution
William Cumming Rose, an American biochemist, is credited with first recording an essential amino acid, through a long series of controlled feeding experiments on rats.
Amino acids are classified as essential (cannot be synthesised by the body in adequate amounts and must be supplied through diet) or non-essential (can be synthesised by the body's own metabolic pathways).
Discovery:
- In the 1930s, William Cumming Rose designed diets of purified amino acids and fed them to rats, then systematically removed one amino acid at a time to see which removals stopped growth.
- Through this method he identified, one by one, the amino acids that are indispensable for normal growth — arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. …
- CBSE 2021Set A1 markMCQQ.Which one is capable of forming zwitterion?(a) CH3NO2(b) CH3COOH(c) CH3CH2NH2(d) H2NCH2COOH
›Reveal solutionSolution
A zwitterion needs both an acidic (–COOH) and a basic (–NH2) group on the same molecule; only glycine (H2NCH2COOH) qualifies.
A zwitterion (inner salt) is a species carrying both a positive and a negative charge while remaining overall neutral. It forms when a molecule has an acidic group that can donate a proton and a basic group that can accept it, on the same molecule.
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