Faiths of rulers and subjects

The Rulers and Their Faiths

One common way historians study the spread of religious traditions is by looking at the faith of the ruling elite. In the Indian subcontinent, this approach is particularly useful because from the eighth century onwards, several ruling dynasties professed Islam.

The first major event was the conquest of Sind in 711 CE by the Arab general Muhammad Qasim. Sind then became part of the Caliph's domain. Later, around the thirteenth century, the Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate. This was followed by the formation of Sultanates in the Deccan and other regions. In all these areas, Islam was the acknowledged religion of the rulers. This pattern continued with the Mughal Empire in the sixteenth century and with many regional states that emerged in the eighteenth century.

The Shari‘a and the Ulama

In theory, Muslim rulers were expected to be guided by the ulama (scholars of Islamic law). The ulama were supposed to ensure that the ruler governed according to the shari‘a.

The Zimmi and the Jizya

The situation in the Indian subcontinent was complicated because large populations did not subscribe to Islam. To deal with this, the category of the zimmi (meaning "protected", from the Arabic word zimma for protection) was developed. This status was originally for people who followed revealed scriptures, such as Jews and Christians, living under Muslim rule. They paid a tax called the jizya and, in return, gained the right to be protected by the Muslim state.

In India, this status of zimmi was extended to Hindus as well.

Flexible Policies of Rulers

Despite the theoretical framework of the shari‘a, rulers in practice often adopted a flexible policy towards their subjects. Many Mughal emperors, including Akbar and Aurangzeb, came to regard themselves as emperors of all peoples, not just Muslims.

This flexibility is visible in several ways:

• Land endowments and tax exemptions: Several rulers gave land grants and tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian, and Jewish religious institutions.
• Respect for non-Muslim leaders: Rulers often expressed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim religious leaders.

Two sources from the textbook illustrate this clearly.

Source 5: A church in Khambat

This is an excerpt from a farman (imperial order) issued by Akbar in 1598:

Whereas it reached our eminent and holy notice that the padris (fathers) of the Holy Society of Jesus wish to build a house of prayer (church) in the city of Kambayat (Khambat, in Gujarat); therefore an exalted mandate … is being issued, … that the dignitaries of the city of Kambayat should in no case stand in their way but should allow them to build a church so that they may engage themselves in their own worship. It is necessary that the order of the Emperor should be obeyed in every way.

Source 6: Reverence for the Jogi

This is an excerpt from a letter written by Aurangzeb to a Jogi in 1661-62: …