New Strands in the Fabric — Islamic Traditions

The arrival of Islam in the Indian subcontinent did not happen in a vacuum. For centuries before the seventh century, Arab merchants had traded along the western coast, and Central Asian groups had settled in the north-west. With the rise of Islam, these regions became part of a much larger interconnected world. The textbook explores how Islamic traditions took root not just among rulers, but across society, blending universal principles with local customs in complex ways.

Faiths of rulers and subjects

One common way to understand the impact of these connections is to look at the religion of ruling elites. In 711 CE, the Arab general Muhammad Qasin conquered Sindh, bringing it under the Caliph's domain. From the thirteenth century, Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate, followed by sultanates in the Deccan and elsewhere. Islam became the acknowledged religion of rulers in many areas, a pattern that continued with the Mughal Empire in the sixteenth century and the regional states of the eighteenth century.

In theory, Muslim rulers were expected to be guided by the ulama (religious scholars), who ensured they ruled according to the shari‘a.

The situation in the subcontinent was complicated because large populations did not subscribe to Islam. For people who followed revealed scriptures (like Jews and Christians) and lived under Muslim rule, the category of zimmi (meaning "protected", from the Arabic zimma for protection) developed. They paid a tax called jizya and in return gained the right to be protected by Muslims. In India, this status was extended to Hindus as well.

In practice, rulers often adopted a flexible policy. Many Mughal rulers, including Akbar and Aurangzeb, gave land endowments and tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian, and Jewish religious institutions. They also expressed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim religious leaders.

The popular practice of Islam

The spread of Islam was not limited to ruling elites. It permeated all social strata — peasants, artisans, warriors, and merchants. All who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five "pillars" of the faith:

• Shahada: There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger.
• Namaz/Salat: Offering prayers five times a day.
• Zakat: Giving alms.
• Sawm: Fasting during the month of Ramzan.
• Hajj: Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca.

However, these universal features were often overlaid with diversity. Practices varied based on sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi‘a) and the influence of local customs among converts from different social backgrounds.

The complex blend of a universal faith with local traditions is best seen in mosque architecture. Some features are universal — orientation towards Mecca, evident in the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). But other features show striking variations:

Names for communities …