History · Ch 6 — Bhakti–Sufi Traditions — Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts
Relations with the state
Relations with the state
The relationship between religious traditions and the state in the Tamil region underwent a significant shift from the early first millennium CE onward. In the early period, several important chiefdoms existed, and from the second half of the first millennium, larger states emerged — those of the Pallavas and Pandyas (roughly sixth to ninth centuries CE). Buddhism and Jainism had been present in the region for centuries, supported mainly by merchant and artisan communities, and they received occasional royal patronage.
A striking feature of Tamil bhakti hymns is the poets’ strong opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. This hostility is especially marked in the compositions of the Nayanars, the Shaiva saints. Historians explain this as competition between different religious groups for royal patronage — each tradition sought the favour and material support of kings.
The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) chose to support Brahmanical and bhakti traditions. They made land grants and constructed temples dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva. Some of the most magnificent Shiva temples — at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, and Gangaikondacholapuram — were built under Chola patronage. This period also produced some of the most spectacular bronze representations of Shiva, especially the Nataraja image. Clearly, the visions of the Nayanars inspired artists.
Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants, a dominant landowning group. Rulers naturally tried to win the support of these popular saints and their followers. The Chola kings, for instance, attempted to claim divine support and proclaim their own power and status by building splendid temples adorned with stone and metal sculpture. These temples were designed to recreate the visions of the saints, who had sung in the language of the people.
The Chola rulers also took the initiative to collect and organise Tamil Shaiva hymns into a text called the Tevaram, and introduced the singing of these hymns in temples under royal patronage. Inscriptional evidence from around 945 CE shows that the Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal images of three Nayanars — Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar — in a Shiva temple. These images were carried in processions during festivals dedicated to these saints. …
Figure 6.5 shows a Chola bronze sculpture of Shiva as Nataraja, the Lord of Dance. The image is framed within a ring of flames, a common feature of these bronzes. Shiva is depicted with four arms, dancing on the dwarf demon Apasmara, who represents ignorance. His upper right hand holds a drum (damaru), symbolising creation; the upper left holds fire, symbolising destruction. The lower right hand is raised in the abhaya mudra (gesture of reassurance), and the lower left points toward his raised foot, which signifies liberation. The ring of flames around him represents the cosmic cycle of creation and destruction.
This figure is placed in the textbook to illustrate the spectacular metal sculptures produced under Chola patronage, which were directly inspired by the visions of the Nayanar saints. The Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions by making land grants, constructing grand Shiva temples (like those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, and Gangaikondacholapuram), and commissioning bronze images such as this one. The Nataraja image was not merely a work of art; it was a ritual object. Inscriptional evidence from around 945 CE shows that the Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal images of the Nayanar saints Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar in a Shiva temple, and these were carried in processions during festivals. The Nataraja bronze, similarly, would have been part of temple rituals and processions, making the divine presence tangible for devotees. …