History · Ch 6 — Bhakti–Sufi Traditions — Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts
Poems of Prayer — Early Traditions of Bhakti
Poems of Prayer — Early Traditions of Bhakti
The earliest bhakti movements in the Indian subcontinent emerged in Tamil Nadu around the sixth century. These were led by two groups of poet-saints: the Alvars, who were “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu, and the Nayanars, who were devotees of Shiva. They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
During their travels, the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as the abodes of their chosen deities. Large temples were later built at these sacred places, which developed into major centres of pilgrimage. The singing of the compositions of these poet-saints became part of temple rituals, and images of the saints themselves began to be worshipped in these shrines.
Attitudes towards caste
Some historians argue that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas, or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by the fact that bhaktas came from diverse social backgrounds — from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators, and even from castes considered “untouchable”.
The importance of these traditions was sometimes indicated by the claim that their compositions were as important as the Vedas. For instance, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, a major anthology of Alvar compositions, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit cherished by the Brahmanas.
Source 1 — Tondaradippodi, an Alvar who was a Brahmana, composed: “You (Vishnu) manifestly like those ‘servants’ who express their love for your feet, though they may be born outcastes, more than the Chaturvedins who are strangers and without allegiance to your service.” This suggests he valued devotion over caste status.
Source 2 — Appar, a Nayanar saint, composed: “O rogues who quote the law books, Of what use are your gotra and kula? Just bow to Marperu’s lord (Shiva) as your sole refuge.” This directly rejects the authority of Brahmanical law books and caste distinctions.
Women devotees
One of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of women. The compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung and continue to be sung to date. Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity.
Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of extreme asceticism to attain her goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition. These women renounced their social obligations but did not join an alternative order or become nuns. Their very existence and their compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.
Source 3 — Karaikkal Ammaiyar describes herself in a poem as a female Pey (demoness) with bulging veins, protruding eyes, white teeth, shrunken stomach, red hair, jutting teeth, and lengthy shins. This depiction presents a stark contrast to traditional notions of feminine beauty.
Relations with the state
From the second half of the first millennium, there is evidence for states in the Tamil region, including those of the Pallavas and Pandyas (c. sixth to ninth centuries CE). While Buddhism and Jainism had been prevalent in the region for centuries, drawing support from merchant and artisan communities, these traditions received only occasional royal patronage.
One major theme in Tamil bhakti hymns is the poets’ opposition to Buddhism and Jainism, particularly marked in the compositions of the Nayanars. Historians explain this hostility as due to competition between members of different religious traditions for royal patronage.
The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions. They made land grants and constructed temples for Vishnu and Shiva. Some of the most magnificent Shiva temples — including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, and Gangaikondacholapuram — were built under Chola patronage. This was also the period when some of the most spectacular bronze sculptures of Shiva were produced. …