Q.(a) Examine the main features of the Stupa at Sanchi and the role of the rulers of Bhopal in preserving it. (5+3=8)
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Start your 14-day free trial to unlock the full solution →Concept understanding — Role of Begums
The first time you hear "Begums" in a history or political science class, it might sound like a strange, royal-sounding word. Think of it this way: in many traditional Indian households, the senior women — the grandmothers, the aunts, the matriarchs — quietly hold the family together. They manage finances, settle disputes, and pass down traditions. Now imagine that same quiet authority, but on the scale of an entire kingdom. That is the role of the Begums.
In the context of Indian history, particularly the Mughal Empire and the princely states that followed, a Begum was a Muslim woman of high rank, usually a queen, princess, or the wife of a nobleman. But the term "role of Begums" in your syllabus refers to something far more specific and powerful: the active, often decisive, political and administrative influence these women wielded, especially during the 18th and 19th centuries.
The NCERT textbook for Class 12 History (Themes in Indian History, Part III) focuses heavily on two remarkable Begums of the state of Bhopal: Qudsia Begum (ruled 1819–1837) and her granddaughter Sikandar Begum (ruled 1860–1868). Their story is the textbook example of this concept.
The "Role of Begums" is not about ceremonial queens. It is about women who ruled directly, commanded armies, managed state finances, built infrastructure, and navigated the treacherous politics of British colonial expansion — all while maintaining their Islamic identity and purdah (seclusion).
Here is what that role actually looked like, broken down into the key functions they performed:
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Direct Political Rule: After the death of her husband, Qudsia Begum did not step aside. She took the throne of Bhopal herself, ruling for 18 years. Later, her granddaughter Sikandar Begum ruled for eight years. They were not figureheads; they issued orders, met with British officials, and made final decisions on war and peace.
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Military Command: This is the most striking part. Sikandar Begum personally led her army into battle. She trained her troops, inspected them regularly, and even led a campaign against a rebellious tribe. She was known to ride at the head of her cavalry, fully armed. This shattered the British stereotype of the "weak, secluded" Indian woman.
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Administration and Reform: They were efficient administrators. Sikandar Begum overhauled the revenue system, improved the police and judiciary, and built roads, wells, and schools. She also established a postal system in Bhopal. Her rule was marked by order and prosperity, which the British reluctantly admired.
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Diplomacy with the British: This was the most delicate part of their role. The British East India Company was the supreme power. The Begums had to maintain their independence while avoiding outright conflict. They did this by being shrewd negotiators. Sikandar Begum, for example, supported the British during the 1857 Revolt, sending troops and supplies. In return, the British recognised her as the rightful ruler, even though colonial law usually did not allow women to rule.
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Patronage of Culture and Religion: They were devout Muslims who observed purdah, but they also funded Hindu temples and Muslim festivals alike. They built mosques, palaces, and gardens. They patronised scholars and poets, ensuring that Bhopal became a centre of culture. …
Part (a): The Sanchi Stupa's features are its anda, harmika, chhatri, vedika, pradakshina patha and four carved toranas; it was preserved by the Begums of Bhopal, who funded it and refused to let its gateways be taken to Europe.
Part (b): The Buddha taught the transience and soul-lessness of the world, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Middle Path; Buddhism grew rapidly because of its simple, casteless, ethical message in the common language, backed by mercantile and royal patronage.
The Stupa at Sanchi and the Rulers of Bhopal
Main features (the architecture). The Great Stupa at Sanchi, begun in Ashoka's time and later enlarged in stone, has:
- the anda — the hemispherical mound over the relics, symbolising the world-mountain;
- the harmika — a railed square platform atop the anda, the abode of the gods;
- the chhatri — a mast bearing a triple umbrella, a symbol of high rank and protection;
- the vedika — a stone railing encircling the stupa, separating sacred from profane space;
- the pradakshina patha — the circumambulatory path along which devotees walked clockwise;
- the four toranas (gateways), its most celebrated feature, profusely carved with Jataka stories (tales of the Buddha's former lives) and scenes from his life. The Buddha is shown only through symbols — an empty seat, the wheel, the stupa, the Bodhi tree (aniconism) — while yakshis and other figures adorn the architraves. Inscriptions record donations by monks, nuns, guilds and lay families.
Role of the rulers of Bhopal. Sanchi survived largely because of the Begums of Bhopal:
- Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum provided grants for the maintenance and restoration of the site.
- They funded a museum and a guesthouse, and Sultan Jehan Begum financed the publication of John Marshall's volumes on Sanchi.
- Crucially, when the French and the British sought to carry off the exquisite gateways to European museums, the Begums refused, allowing only plaster casts to be made — so the originals remained in place.
The Begums' foresight is why Sanchi's toranas still stand at the site rather than being dispersed abroad — a model of enlightened preservation of India's heritage.
Concept understanding — Buddhist Social Contract
Let’s start with something you already know. Think about why you follow rules in a group project or why you stop at a red light even when no one is watching. You do it because you understand that if everyone did whatever they wanted, the group would fall apart. That basic trade-off — giving up a little personal freedom in exchange for safety, order, and cooperation — is the seed of every social contract theory.
Now, the Buddhist version of this idea is different from the one you might have read about in Western political thought (like Hobbes or Rousseau). It does not begin with a war of “all against all” or a noble savage. Instead, it starts from a very human observation: people are not perfect, and they need rules to live together peacefully.
The Buddhist Origin Story of Society
The Buddhist texts, especially the Aggañña Sutta (a discourse in the Digha Nikaya), describe a mythical beginning. In the beginning, beings were formless and radiant, living on a kind of mental joy. Over time, they became more material, and the earth appeared. They started eating solid food, and their bodies became coarser. As they ate, some became greedy — they took more than their share. Others became angry. Theft, lying, and conflict arose.
This is the key moment. The people saw that their society was falling into chaos. So, they gathered and made a decision. They chose one person among them — the most handsome, the most capable, the most virtuous — and they elected him to be their king. In return for his authority, they promised to give him a portion of their rice. The king’s job was to maintain order, punish wrongdoers, and protect the people.
This is the core of the Buddhist social contract: it is a voluntary, mutual agreement between the people and the ruler. The people give up some of their rice (taxes) and some of their freedom to act arbitrarily. The ruler gives up the right to rule arbitrarily — he must rule justly, according to Dhamma (the natural law of righteousness).
What Makes It Different from Western Social Contracts?
- No “State of Nature” as a war. The Buddhist version does not assume humans are naturally evil. It says greed and ignorance arise, but so does the wisdom to fix the problem.
- The ruler is not a sovereign with absolute power. The king is chosen by the people and can be removed if he becomes unjust. His legitimacy comes from consent, not from divine right or conquest.
- The contract is not just about security. It is about creating conditions for people to live ethically and progress spiritually. The ruler’s duty is to uphold Dhamma, which includes fairness, non-violence, and care for the poor.
- It is a moral contract, not just a political one. Both the ruler and the ruled have duties. The people must obey just laws; the ruler must rule without cruelty or greed.
Why Does This Matter for a Commerce/Humanities Student?
You might think this is ancient history, but the idea has real-world relevance.
- It challenges the idea that authority is always top-down. The Buddhist contract says authority flows from the people upward. This is a very early argument for democratic and accountable governance.
- It links economics with ethics. The king gets a share of rice — that is taxation. But the purpose of that tax is not to enrich the ruler; it is to fund justice and public welfare. This is a precursor to the idea of a welfare state. …
Part (a): The Sanchi Stupa's features are its anda, harmika, chhatri, vedika, pradakshina patha and four carved toranas; it was preserved by the Begums of Bhopal, who funded it and refused to let its gateways be taken to Europe.
Part (b): The Buddha taught the transience and soul-lessness of the world, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Middle Path; Buddhism grew rapidly because of its simple, casteless, ethical message in the common language, backed by mercantile and royal patronage.
The Buddha's Teachings and the Rapid Growth of Buddhism
Major teachings.
- The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing, and it is soul-less (anatta) — there is no permanent, unchanging self.
- Suffering (dukkha) is intrinsic to worldly existence, summarised in the Four Noble Truths: there is suffering; its cause is craving (tanha); it can be ended; and the way to end it is the Eightfold Path.
- The Eightfold (Middle) Path — right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration — avoids both self-indulgence and extreme asceticism.
- He stressed right conduct, non-violence (ahimsa), moderation and karma, and taught that individual effort, not sacrifice or priestly ritual, leads to release (nibbana) from the cycle of rebirth. He was silent on, or set aside, the authority of the Vedas and the existence of a supreme creator.
Why Buddhism grew rapidly during the Buddha's own time. …
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