Q.Highlight any three environmental concerns significant to global politics.

The question of why oil occupies such a commanding position in international relations cannot be separated from the economic and political power it confers. Since the mid-twentieth century, petroleum has been the lifeblood of industrial economies—powering transport, manufacturing, and energy grids. Control over oil reserves and supply routes translates directly into geopolitical leverage. Nations that possess large reserves or dominate chokepoints like the Strait of Hormuz wield disproportionate influence in world affairs.

The assertion that oil continues to be the most important resource in global strategy is demonstrably true. Despite advances in renewable energy, the global economy remains heavily dependent on oil. Major powers structure their foreign policies around securing access to oil, protecting supply lines, and maintaining relationships with oil-producing states. Military interventions, alliances, and diplomatic manoeuvres in the Middle East, the Caspian region, and other oil-rich areas underscore this strategic priority.

The reason given—that immense wealth associated with oil generates political struggles—is equally true and directly explains the assertion. Oil revenues create what is often called the "resource curse": vast financial flows that can destabilise governments, fuel corruption, and ignite both internal and interstate conflicts. Competition for oil wealth has driven wars, coups, and proxy conflicts. The 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, ongoing tensions in the Persian Gulf, and the scramble for African oil fields all illustrate how oil wealth becomes a flashpoint for political struggle. This wealth also enables oil-rich states to project power, fund military buildups, and resist external pressure, further embedding oil in the calculus of global strategy. …

The Arab Spring refers to an unprecedented wave of protests, uprisings, and armed conflicts that began in late 2010 and spread across much of the Arab world. It was sparked by widespread discontent over long-standing authoritarian regimes, political corruption, human rights abuses, and severe economic issues such as high unemployment and poverty.

The core demands of the participants were fundamentally political: they sought an end to autocratic rule, greater political freedoms, democratic governance, and social justice. The movements often began with peaceful protests, but in many countries, they escalated into violent confrontations, civil wars, and regime changes. For instance, the protests led to the overthrow of long-serving leaders in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen.

Consider why other options are less accurate:

• Cultural movement: While any major societal upheaval can have cultural repercussions, the Arab Spring's primary objectives were not about changing cultural norms, artistic expressions, or religious practices. Its focus was on governance and power. …

In a democratic system, political parties are the primary vehicles through which citizens participate in governance. They contest elections, form governments, and articulate public demands. However, the political landscape is not solely defined by these formal party structures. Often, significant social and political change is driven by groups that choose to operate outside the conventional party system. These are known as "Non-Party Movements."

Non-party movements are essentially collective actions by citizens who organize themselves around specific issues or causes, rather than forming a political party to contest elections. Their primary goal is not to win political power or form a government, but to influence public policy, raise awareness, and bring about social change on particular concerns. They emerge when existing political parties are perceived as unresponsive, inadequate, or unwilling to address certain pressing issues, or when citizens feel a need for more direct and focused action.

These movements often arise from the grassroots, representing the interests and grievances of specific sections of society, such as farmers, women, environmentalists, or marginalized communities. They typically focus on a narrow range of issues, allowing them to mobilize support and exert pressure more effectively than broad-based political parties, which must cater to diverse interests.

Key characteristics of non-party movements include:

• Issue-Specific Focus: They concentrate on particular social, economic, environmental, or human rights issues, such as land rights, gender equality, environmental protection, or anti-corruption.
• Grassroots Mobilization: Many movements originate from local communities and rely on the active participation of ordinary citizens, rather than top-down leadership.
• Diverse Methods of Protest and Advocacy: They employ a range of tactics including public demonstrations, rallies, marches, sit-ins, awareness campaigns, petitions, public interest litigation, and lobbying policymakers.
• Moral Authority and Public Opinion: Non-party movements often derive their strength from their moral stance on an issue and their ability to sway public opinion, rather than from electoral mandates.
• Decentralized Structure: While some may have formal organizations, many movements are characterized by a more fluid, decentralized structure, allowing for greater flexibility and responsiveness. …