Q.Assertion (A) : The old social movements functioned within the frame of political parties. Reason (R) : Old social movements were national. (A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A). (B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A). (C) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false. (D) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

The passage rightly points out that many aspects of modern life we consider fundamental, such as the eight-hour workday, equal pay, and social security, are not naturally occurring entitlements but are the direct result of sustained struggles by workers and other groups. These struggles are examples of social movements, which are organized efforts by groups of people to bring about or resist social change. They are a testament to the power of collective action in shaping the world we inhabit.

Social movements are catalysts for profound societal transformation. They emerge when groups perceive a significant injustice, inequality, or a need for change that existing institutions are failing to address. Through various strategies—including protests, advocacy, education, and political mobilization—these movements challenge established norms, power structures, and legal frameworks. Their impact can be seen across history, from securing basic human rights to fundamentally altering political landscapes.

Let us evaluate the given options to understand how social movements have shaped the world:

• (A) In the 19th century, reform movements did not influence caste and gender.

  Watch out

  This statement is incorrect. The 19th century was a period of significant social reform in many parts of the world, including India, where movements actively challenged caste discrimination and advocated for women's rights. Reformers worked tirelessly to abolish practices like Sati, promote widow remarriage, and advance female education, profoundly influencing societal attitudes and legal frameworks concerning caste and gender.

• (B) Asia and Africa had nationalist movements, which ended colonialism.

  Important

  This statement accurately describes a monumental way social movements have shaped the world. Across Asia and Africa, powerful nationalist movements emerged in the 20th century, uniting diverse populations in the struggle against colonial rule. These movements, through various forms of resistance, political mobilization, and diplomatic efforts, ultimately led to the independence of numerous nations, fundamentally redrawing the global political map and empowering previously subjugated peoples. This is a clear and undeniable example of social movements bringing about profound societal and political change.

• (C) The Civil Rights Movement in the USA did not bring equal rights.

  Watch out

  This statement is incorrect. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States, a pivotal social movement of the mid-20th century, was highly successful in its objectives. It led to the passage of landmark legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which legally outlawed racial segregation and discrimination, significantly advancing equal rights for African Americans.

• (D) Anti-apartheid struggle did not change society in South Africa.

  Watch out

  This statement is incorrect. The anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa was one of the most significant social movements of the 20th century. It successfully dismantled the brutal system of apartheid, which enforced racial segregation and discrimination, leading to the establishment of a democratic, non-racial government and a complete transformation of South African society.

Therefore, among the given options, the most accurate description of how social movements have shaped the world is the impact of nationalist movements in ending colonialism.

The term 'Adivasi' carries deep political meaning. Coined in the 1930s, it literally means 'original inhabitants' and emerged as a rallying cry against colonial intrusion, outside settlers, and moneylenders. This was not a neutral label — it was a declaration of rights and resistance. Adivasis were, and are, communities who lived in close relationship with forests, practising shifting cultivation and maintaining distinct cultural identities.

Now, look at the four options given. Option (A) says their economic conditions were better than non-Adivasis. The passage tells us the term was coined as part of the struggle against colonial government, settlers, and moneylenders. That struggle implies exploitation and dispossession, not economic advantage. Historically, Adivasis were pushed into marginal lands, lost access to forests, and fell into debt traps — their conditions were worse, not better. So (A) is the statement that is not true.

Option (B) — "They are found mainly in the north-eastern parts of India" — is broadly correct, though they also live in central India. Option (C) — "They were believed to be the people of the forest" — matches the historical association. Option (D) — "They had practised shifting cultivation" — is a traditional agricultural method among many Adivasi groups.

Understanding the chronological order of historical events is crucial for grasping the evolution of social movements and their impact. When arranging these statements, we need to identify the time period each describes and then sequence them from the earliest to the most recent.

Let's break down each statement:

• Statement (III): "The term 'Adivasi' was coined in the 1930s as part of the struggle against intrusion by the colonial government and outside settlers."

  • This statement provides a specific date: the 1930s. It introduces the term 'Adivasi' and its origin in the context of colonial resistance. The passage itself begins by defining 'Adivasi' and stating its coining in the 1930s, making this a strong starting point for a narrative focused on the term and its associated struggles.

• Statement (I): "The resource extraction in areas inhabited by tribes can be traced to the British Government."

  • This refers to the colonial period, specifically the actions of the British Government. While the British presence and resource extraction began much earlier than the 1930s, this statement explains the historical root of the "intrusion by the colonial government" mentioned in statement (III). It provides the context for why the struggle leading to the coining of 'Adivasi' was necessary. Therefore, it logically follows the introduction of the term and its struggle, explaining the underlying cause.

• Statement (II): "Since the 1990s, when economic liberalisation policies were officially adopted by the Indian Government, the process of resource extraction in Adivasi areas has become even more powerful."

  • This statement clearly points to the post-independence era, specifically from the 1990s onwards. It describes a later phase where the issue of resource extraction, which began in the colonial period, intensified due to new economic policies. This places it significantly after the events of the 1930s and the colonial era.

• Statement (IV): "The most significant achievement of Adivasi movements includes attainment of statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh in the year 2000."

  • This statement gives a precise date: the year 2000. This is the most recent event among all the statements, representing a major outcome of the ongoing Adivasi movements.

Considering this analysis, the most coherent chronological and thematic order is as follows:

1. (III) The term 'Adivasi' was coined in the 1930s as part of the struggle against intrusion by the colonial government and outside settlers. This sets the stage by introducing the key term and its origin in a specific historical period.
2. (I) The resource extraction in areas inhabited by tribes can be traced to the British Government. This provides the historical background and a primary reason for the "intrusion" and "struggle" mentioned in the previous statement.
3. (II) Since the 1990s, when economic liberalisation policies were officially adopted by the Indian Government, the process of resource extraction in Adivasi areas has become even more powerful. This moves the narrative forward to the post-independence era, showing the continuation and intensification of the resource extraction issue.
4. (IV) The most significant achievement of Adivasi movements includes attainment of statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh in the year 2000. This concludes with a significant, more recent achievement of the movements, following the historical context and ongoing challenges.

Social movements are collective actions by groups of people who come together to achieve a common goal, often involving social or political change. Historically, these movements can be broadly categorized into "old" and "new" social movements, each with distinct characteristics regarding their goals, methods, and relationship with the political system.

Assertion (A): The old social movements functioned within the frame of political parties.

This assertion is true. Old social movements, which largely emerged from the 19th century through the mid-20th century, were typically focused on issues of class, such as workers' rights, peasant struggles, or anti-colonial liberation. These movements often had a clear ideological basis and aimed to achieve systemic change by influencing or capturing state power. To do this, they frequently:

• Formed their own political parties: For example, many socialist and communist parties originated from workers' movements.
• Aligned with existing political parties: They would support parties that championed their cause or lobby them to adopt their agenda.
• Operated through party-affiliated organizations: Trade unions, for instance, were often closely linked to specific political parties. Their engagement with political parties was a strategic choice, as it provided a structured avenue to articulate demands, mobilize support, and pursue legislative or governmental change.

Reason (R): Old social movements were national.

This reason is also true. Old social movements primarily operated within the geographical and political boundaries of a nation-state. Their concerns were typically about issues affecting the population of a specific nation or achieving independence for a nation.

• National liberation movements: These movements, by definition, aimed to establish or free a nation-state from colonial rule.
• Class-based movements: Workers' and peasant movements, while sharing common struggles globally, typically focused on national labor laws, land reforms, and economic policies within their respective countries. Their organizational structures and demands were largely confined to the national context, seeking to influence or transform the state apparatus of a particular nation.

Relationship between Assertion (A) and Reason (R):

While both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, Reason (R) is not the correct explanation for Assertion (A).

The fact that old social movements were national describes their geographical and political scope. It means their activities and goals were confined to a nation. However, this national scope does not explain why they functioned within the frame of political parties.

The primary reason old social movements aligned with political parties was their state-centric goals and their strategy for achieving power or influence. They sought to change laws, redistribute resources, or gain political independence, which are objectives typically pursued through the formal political system, often via political parties. Their national character simply defined the arena in which these political interactions took place. A movement could be national but choose to operate entirely outside the party system if its goals were non-political or if it adopted different strategies. The link to political parties is about the nature of their demands and methods, not merely their geographical reach.

Therefore, both the assertion and the reason are individually true, but the reason does not provide a direct explanation for the assertion.

Social movements in India have long been shaped by the voices of tribal communities — Adivasis — who have historically faced displacement, exploitation, and cultural marginalisation. Over the past few decades, these communities have become more politically assertive, demanding recognition of their distinct identity and rights. This is not a passing trend; it reflects deep structural changes within tribal societies and their relationship with the larger Indian state and economy.

One key driver of this rising assertion is the emergence of a middle class within tribal society. As education and employment opportunities have expanded for some Adivasis, a new stratum has emerged that is better equipped to articulate grievances, organise movements, and engage with legal and political institutions. This middle class often becomes the backbone of identity-based mobilisation, linking economic grievances with cultural pride.

Now, look at the four statements in the question. Statement (A) — that assertions of tribal identity are on the rise — is clearly true, as seen in numerous movements across central and eastern India. Statement (B) — linking this rise to the emergence of a tribal middle class — is also accurate; this class has provided leadership and resources for identity politics. Statement (D) — that issues of control over land and forests are on the rise — is equally true, because land alienation and forest rights remain the most explosive material grievances for tribal communities.

That leaves statement (C): "Issues relating to matters of ethnic-cultural identity are becoming less important." This is the false one. In fact, the opposite is happening. Tribal movements today increasingly emphasise cultural symbols — language, festivals, traditional governance, and distinct historical narratives — alongside economic demands. The two reinforce each other: losing a forest is not just an economic loss but a blow to a way of life, a spiritual geography, and a collective memory.

The closest distractor is statement (D), which might seem extreme — but it is actually true. Land and forest conflicts have intensified, not diminished, as mining, dams, and industrial projects encroach on tribal territories. The correct answer is unmistakably (C), because it directly contradicts the observable reality of rising cultural assertion among Adivasis.

Social movements are collective actions by groups of people who share a common purpose and work to bring about or resist social change. Historically, many significant movements, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, were often rooted in economic grievances and class struggle, such as labor movements advocating for workers' rights. However, from the mid-20th century onwards, a different kind of social movement began to emerge, often termed "New Movements." These movements represent a significant shift in focus, organization, and goals compared to their predecessors.

These New Movements often transcend purely economic concerns, delving into broader societal issues that affect quality of life, identity, and cultural values. They are characterized by a diverse range of participants, often cutting across traditional social divisions, and frequently employ innovative strategies to achieve their aims. Understanding their core characteristics helps distinguish them from earlier forms of collective action.

Let us examine the given statements in light of these characteristics:

• I. They are global in nature.

  Many New Movements indeed have a global reach and address issues that are not confined by national borders. Environmental movements, for instance, tackle climate change and pollution, which are global phenomena. Human rights movements advocate for universal rights, and women's rights movements often share common goals across different countries. The interconnectedness of the modern world, facilitated by communication technologies, allows these movements to mobilize and coordinate internationally, sharing ideas and strategies.

  Important

  The global interconnectedness of issues like climate change, human rights, and gender equality is a defining feature that allows New Movements to operate on an international scale.

• II. They are organised along class lines alone.

  This statement is incorrect. A key distinction of New Movements from older, more traditional movements (like early socialist or labor movements) is that they are not organized along class lines alone. While class can still be a factor in some contexts, New Movements often draw participants from various social classes and focus on issues that cut across class divisions. For example, environmental concerns affect people regardless of their economic status, and identity-based movements unite people based on shared gender, ethnicity, or sexual orientation, rather than solely economic class.

  Watch out

  Do not confuse New Movements with traditional class-based movements. While class can intersect with other identities, New Movements are fundamentally broader in their social base and concerns.

• III. Identity politics, cultural anxieties and aspirations are essential elements for these movements.

  This statement is true and highlights a core aspect of New Movements. Unlike movements primarily focused on economic redistribution, New Movements often center on issues of identity, recognition, and cultural values. This includes movements advocating for the rights of specific identity groups (e.g., LGBTQ+ rights, indigenous rights, feminist movements), addressing cultural anxieties about globalization or loss of tradition, and pursuing aspirations for a more inclusive, just, or sustainable society. These movements seek to redefine social norms, challenge existing power structures, and gain recognition for marginalized identities and cultures.

• IV. They are not within the framework of political parties.

  This statement is largely true. New Movements typically operate outside the formal structures of established political parties. They often emerge from grassroots initiatives, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or informal networks. While they may seek to influence political parties, lobby governments, or even inspire new political formations, their primary mode of operation is independent. They often use direct action, public awareness campaigns, and advocacy to pressure political systems from the outside, rather than working through the hierarchical and often compromise-driven processes of party politics. This independence allows them greater flexibility and often a more radical stance than political parties might adopt.

Based on this analysis, statements I, III, and IV are true, while statement II is false.