Q.Examine the efforts taken by Jawaharlal Nehru for the promotion of Afro-Asian Unity.

The Non-Aligned Movement emerged during the height of the Cold War, when the world was sharply divided between two hostile blocs: the capitalist West led by the United States and the communist East led by the Soviet Union. Many newly independent nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America found themselves pressured to choose sides in this ideological confrontation. They sought instead to chart an independent course in international affairs, refusing to align with either superpower bloc.

The roots of non-alignment can be traced to the Bandung Conference of 1955, held in Indonesia. That gathering brought together twenty-nine Asian and African countries and articulated principles of peaceful coexistence, anti-colonialism, and mutual respect. While Bandung was a crucial precursor and laid the ideological groundwork, it was not itself a NAM summit. The movement needed a more formal institutional structure, and that crystallized six years later.

In September 1961, leaders from twenty-five countries convened in Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia, for what became the first official Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement. The conference was hosted by Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslavia's president, who along with India's Jawaharlal Nehru, Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, Indonesia's Sukarno, and Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah had been instrumental in shaping the movement. Belgrade became the birthplace of NAM as a formal organization, where member states committed to principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, non-interference, and the rejection of military alliances with the great powers. …

The story of the Dalai Lama's flight into exile is one of the defining moments of Cold War-era Asian politics and remains central to understanding Tibet's modern history. In March 1959, amid escalating tensions between Tibetan resistance forces and the Chinese government, the fourteenth Dalai Lama—Tibet's spiritual and political leader—fled Lhasa, the Tibetan capital, fearing for his safety.

The immediate trigger was a popular uprising in Lhasa against Chinese rule, which had been established following the People's Liberation Army's entry into Tibet in 1950. As the situation deteriorated and Chinese forces moved to suppress the revolt, the Dalai Lama, then twenty-three years old, undertook a perilous two-week journey across the Himalayas. Disguised and travelling by night with a small group of advisors and guards, he crossed into India through the northeastern frontier.

India, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, granted him political asylum despite the delicate diplomatic position this created with China. The decision reflected India's historical and cultural ties to Tibet, as well as a humanitarian commitment to sheltering a religious leader in distress. The Dalai Lama was initially received in Tezpur, Assam, and later established his residence in Dharamsala, a hill town in Himachal Pradesh that has since become the seat of the Tibetan government-in-exile. …

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) emerged as a significant force in international relations during the Cold War era, a period characterized by intense ideological and geopolitical rivalry between two dominant power blocs: the United States and its allies (the Western Bloc) and the Soviet Union and its allies (the Eastern Bloc). Many newly independent nations, particularly in Asia and Africa, found themselves caught between these two spheres of influence, often pressured to align with one side or the other.

NAM offered a principled alternative to this bipolar world order. Its core philosophy was to maintain independence from the major power blocs, advocating for self-determination, mutual respect, and peaceful coexistence among nations. The movement aimed to create a collective voice for developing countries, enabling them to pursue their own national interests and contribute to global peace without becoming entangled in superpower conflicts. This stance was not about neutrality in all matters, but rather about independent judgment and action on international issues.

The groundwork for NAM was laid through various international gatherings, most notably the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in 1955, which brought together leaders from Asian and African nations to discuss common challenges and aspirations. This conference highlighted the shared desire for a foreign policy independent of the Cold War blocs and fostered a spirit of solidarity among newly decolonized states.

The first official summit of the Non-Aligned Movement was a landmark event that formally established the organization and articulated its principles. It was held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, from September 1 to 6, 1961. Yugoslavia, under the leadership of President Josip Broz Tito, was itself a socialist state that had charted an independent course from the Soviet Union, making Belgrade a symbolically appropriate venue for a movement emphasizing autonomy and non-alignment. …

The 1962 Sino-Indian War was a brief but sharp conflict rooted in long-simmering disagreements over the Himalayan border. To understand which statement is correct, we need to look at the context of the period.

The core issue was the boundary dispute. India and China had inherited different maps and claims from the colonial era. India’s position, based on the McMahon Line in the eastern sector and historical administration in the west, clashed with China’s claims over Aksai Chin and parts of Arunachal Pradesh (then NEFA). This disagreement was not new in 1962, but it had been building for years. In the late 1950s, India discovered that China had built a road through Aksai Chin, linking Tibet to Xinjiang, which India considered its territory. Diplomatic talks failed, and border tensions escalated into skirmishes. In October 1962, China launched a full-scale offensive, catching the Indian military off guard. The war lasted about a month, ending with a unilateral Chinese ceasefire and withdrawal.

Now, let’s examine the other options to see why they are incorrect.

India's foreign policy after independence was shaped by a determination to chart its own course in a world rapidly dividing into hostile camps. Nehru and his colleagues believed that newly independent nations should not become pawns in superpower rivalries, and that moral principles rather than military alliances should guide international conduct. This commitment to strategic autonomy was tested repeatedly in the 1950s, when global crises forced countries to choose sides.

The Suez Crisis of 1956 offered a clear demonstration of India's independent stance. When Britain, France, and Israel launched a coordinated military attack on Egypt after President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, India condemned the aggression unequivocally. This was a bold position: Britain was the former colonial power with which India still maintained Commonwealth ties, yet India sided firmly with Egypt's sovereign right to control its own waterway. India took the matter to the United Nations and supported international pressure that eventually forced the attackers to withdraw. The episode showed that India would not let old colonial relationships dictate its positions on questions of sovereignty and territorial integrity.

The statement confuses the identity of the warring parties. In November 1971, the entity that fought a full-scale war with India was Pakistan, not Bangladesh. At that time, Bangladesh was still East Pakistan — a province of Pakistan. The war itself was the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, triggered by the political and humanitarian crisis in East Pakistan following the Pakistani military's brutal crackdown on the Bengali independence movement.

The sequence of events is important. In March 1971, after the Awami League won a landslide election in Pakistan but was denied power, East Pakistan declared independence as Bangladesh. The Pakistani army responded with a violent suppression, causing millions of refugees to flee into India. India initially provided diplomatic and material support to the Mukti Bahini (Bengali freedom fighters), but direct military intervention came only after months of escalating tensions. …

Foreign policy is never made in a vacuum. Every country’s approach to the world is a product of pressures and priorities that come from two broad directions: what is happening inside its borders, and what is happening beyond them. To say that only cultural factors, or only economic factors, or only domestic factors determine foreign policy would be to ignore the rich, tangled reality of how nations actually behave.

Think of domestic factors first. These include a country’s political system, its economic needs, its historical experiences, its public opinion, and the interests of powerful groups within society. For example, a democracy may find its foreign policy constrained by what voters will tolerate, while an authoritarian regime might have more freedom to pursue long-term strategic goals without immediate popular backlash. Economic conditions — such as a need for oil, markets for exports, or access to foreign capital — also push foreign policy in particular directions. Cultural and ideological factors matter too: a nation’s sense of identity, its religious traditions, or its belief in a certain political ideology can shape whom it allies with or opposes. …

Part (a)

During the Cold War, India and China were estranged — scarred by the 1962 border war, China's alignment with Pakistan, and ideological distance. After the Soviet collapse in 1991 and India's own economic liberalisation, pragmatism replaced ideology. The most striking change has been the explosion of bilateral trade: from a few hundred million dollars in the early 1990s to tens of billions, making China one of India's largest trading partners, alongside deeper diplomatic engagement through forums like BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. The border dispute remains unresolved (as the Doklam and Galwan episodes show), but economic interdependence marks a clear post-Cold-War change.

Part (b) …