Q.Ridhima wants to detect structure of surface of materials. Name the technique she has to use.

Nanomaterials are synthesised by two broad approaches: bottom-up, where molecular components self-assemble atom by atom, molecule by molecule and cluster by cluster into larger structures (e.g. nanoparticle synthesis by colloidal dispersion), and top-down, where bulk material is progressively broken down into finer and finer pieces until only a few atoms remain (mechanical disassembly of bulk solids). A key wet-chemical route is the sol-gel process, used mainly for oxide materials: a sol (a dispersion of 1-100 nm colloidal particles in a liquid) is converted into a gel (an interconnected rigid network) via hydrolysis of a metal alkoxide (MOR + H2O -> MOH + ROH) followed by polycondensation (MOH + ROM -> M-O-M + ROH), then carried through ageing, drying and thermal dehydration (heating up to 800°C) -- a process also used industrially to make water-repellent coatings for vehicle windscreens and mirrors. Once synthesised, a nanomaterial is characterised using dedicated analytical instruments: UV-visible spectroscopy gives a preliminary confirmation that nanoparticles have formed; X-ray diffraction (XRD) gi …