Q.Name and explain the technique that can be used in developing improved crop varieties in plants bearing female flowers only.
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🔒 Start your 14-day free trial to unlock the full solution →Part (a)Concept understanding — Bagging Technique Utility
Let’s begin with something you already know from everyday life.
Imagine you have to make a very important decision — say, which college course to pick. You could ask one friend for advice. But that one friend might be biased (they love their own subject) or misinformed (they heard something wrong). So instead, you ask ten different people — teachers, seniors, parents, counsellors — and then take a majority vote or an average of their opinions. That collective decision is almost always more reliable than any single person’s advice.
That is the core intuition behind Bagging.
What Bagging Does
In data analysis and machine learning, Bagging stands for Bootstrap Aggregating. It is a technique used to make a prediction model more stable and accurate.
Here is the precise meaning: instead of building one single model (like one decision tree or one rule-based classifier) on the entire dataset, you create many slightly different versions of the same model, each trained on a different random sample of the original data. Then you combine all their outputs — usually by taking a majority vote (for classification) or an average (for prediction).
The key word is Bootstrap. A bootstrap sample is created by randomly picking data points from the original dataset with replacement — meaning the same data point can be picked more than once in a single sample, and some points may be left out. Each sample is different, so each model sees a slightly different view of the world.
Why It Matters
The main utility of Bagging is reducing variance — that is, reducing the model’s tendency to change wildly if you give it a slightly different set of data.
Think of it this way: a single model can be “nervous” — it might overreact to a few unusual data points (outliers) or to random noise in the data. But when you average the opinions of many such models, their individual nervousness cancels out. The combined model becomes calm, stable, and more accurate.
Bagging works best when the individual models are unstable — meaning they change a lot with small changes in the training data. Decision trees are a classic example. Bagging turns a shaky tree into a robust forest.
Key Points to Remember (for exams)
- Purpose: To improve accuracy and stability by combining multiple models.
- How it works: Create many random samples (with replacement) from the original data. Train a separate model on each sample. Combine their predictions.
- Why it helps: Reduces overfitting (the model memorising noise) and lowers variance.
- Trade-off: It does not reduce bias much — if the individual model is fundamentally weak, bagging won’t fix that. It only makes a good model more reliable. …
Part (b)Concept understanding — Male And Female Gametophyte
Let’s start with something you already know. Think of a plant like a mango tree. It produces flowers, and those flowers eventually turn into mangoes. How does that happen? The flower is the plant’s reproductive organ, and inside it, two tiny but crucial structures are made: the male gametophyte and the female gametophyte. These are not the “male” and “female” parts of the flower themselves (like the stamen and pistil) — they are the microscopic, single-generation cells that actually carry the genetic material to form the next plant.
The everyday intuition
Imagine you are baking a cake. The male gametophyte is like the packet of dry yeast — it’s small, mobile, and needs to be added to the mixture. The female gametophyte is like the bowl of flour, eggs, and sugar — it’s larger, stationary, and provides the environment where the yeast works. Without the yeast reaching the bowl, no cake rises. Without the bowl, the yeast has nothing to act on. In a flower, the male gametophyte (pollen grain) must travel to the female gametophyte (embryo sac) for fertilisation to happen.
The precise meaning
In NCERT biology, the male gametophyte is the pollen grain. It develops inside the anther (the top part of the stamen). A mature pollen grain contains two cells: a tube cell and a generative cell. The tube cell will grow a long tube down the style of the pistil, and the generative cell will divide to form two sperm cells. So the male gametophyte is not the whole stamen — it’s the tiny, single-celled (or two-celled) structure that carries the male genetic material.
The female gametophyte is the embryo sac. It develops inside the ovule, which is located in the ovary of the pistil. The embryo sac is a seven-celled, eight-nucleate structure (though you don’t need to memorise numbers for a prose subject — just know it’s a small, organised sac). It contains the egg cell (the female gamete) and other cells that help in fertilisation and nourishment. The female gametophyte is not the whole pistil — it’s the microscopic sac inside the ovule.
The male gametophyte (pollen grain) is haploid — it has only one set of chromosomes. The female gametophyte (embryo sac) is also haploid. When they fuse during fertilisation, they form a diploid zygote, which grows into the seed. This is why both are called “gametophytes” — they produce gametes (sperm and egg).
Why it matters …
Part (a)
Plants bearing only female flowers (pistillate plants) cannot self-pollinate, so improved varieties are developed by artificial hybridisation — carried out with the help of the bagging technique.
Steps:
- Collect pollen from a selected male (staminate) parent that has the desired trait.
- Dust this pollen on the receptive stigma of the female flower using a brush (artificial/hand pollination). Emasculation is not needed because the target plant has no anthers.
- Bag the pollinated flower with a butter-paper bag immediately, to prevent contamination by unwanted pollen and ensure that only the chosen pollen fertilises it. …
Part (a): For plants bearing only female flowers, improved varieties are raised by artificial hybridisation using the bagging technique — hand-dusting selected pollen on the stigma and bagging the flower.
Part (b): A non-flowering plant is homothallic/monoecious when both sex organs are on the same plant (e.g. Funaria) and heterothallic/dioecious when they are on separate plants (e.g. Marchantia).
Part (a)
Developing improved varieties in plants that bear only female flowers
When a plant bears only female (pistillate) flowers, natural self-pollination is impossible, so the breeder must supply pollen and control the cross. The technique used is artificial hybridisation, carried out with the bagging technique.
Steps of the technique
- Selection of parents. Choose the female-flowered plant with good maternal traits (e.g. fruit quality) and a male parent carrying the desired trait (e.g. disease resistance).
- Pollen collection. Collect mature, viable pollen from the anthers of the selected male parent.
- Artificial (hand) pollination. Dust the collected pollen onto the receptive stigma of the female flower with a clean brush. Emasculation is not required, because the female-only plant has no anthers of its own to remove.
- Bagging. Immediately cover the pollinated flower with a butter-paper bag. Bagging prevents contamination by unwanted pollen from the air or insects, so that fertilisation occurs only by the chosen pollen — this is the essence of the bagging technique.
- Raising the new variety. Allow fruit and seed to develop, grow the progeny, select the superior recombinants, and multiply them as an improved variety. …
Showing the 12 most recent of 60 on this concept.
- CBSE 2026Set 57/2/11 markMCQQ.Given below are stages of embryo sac formation from megaspore mother cell. Identify the correct option for the cell division marked a, b, c and d. (A) a – Meiosis-I, b – No division, c – Mitosis, d – Meiosis-II (B) a – Meiosis-I, b – Meiosis-II, c – No division, d - Mitosis (C) a – Mitosis, b – Meiosis-I, c – Meiosis-II, d – No division (D) a – No division, b – Mitosis, c – Meiosis-I, d – Meiosis-II
›Reveal solutionSolution
The megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis (two divisions) to produce four haploid megaspores, of which only one survives; that functional megaspore then undergoes three mitotic divisions to form the eight-nucleate embryo sac — so the correct sequence is Meiosis-I, Meiosis-II, No division, Mitosis.
To understand this question, you need to picture the sequence of events inside the ovule of a flowering plant. The story begins with a single, large cell called the megaspore mother cell (MMC) . This cell is diploid (2n) and is the starting point for forming the female gametophyte — the embryo sac.
The MMC does not simply grow or divide by mitosis. Instead, it enters meiosis, a special type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half. Meiosis happens in two consecutive stages: Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II. So the very first division (marked 'a' in your diagram) is Meiosis-I. The second division (marked 'b') is Meiosis-II. After these two divisions, the original single MMC has produced four haploid (n) cells — these are called megaspores.
Now here is a critical twist. In most flowering plants, three of these four megaspores degenerate and die. Only one of them — usually the one farthest from the micropyle (the opening of the ovule) — remains functional. So after the four megaspores are formed, there is a stage where no division occurs (marked 'c' in your diagram). Instead, three cells simply break down, leaving just one functional megaspore.
That single functional megaspore is the starting point for the actual embryo sac. It is haploid and now needs to grow into a structure that contains the egg cell and other supporting cells. How does it do that? It undergoes three rounds of mitotic divisions (marked 'd'). Mitosis ensures that all the resulting nuclei remain haploid and genetically identical. The first mitosis produces two nuclei, the second produces four, and the third produces eight nuclei. These eight nuclei then arrange themselves into the typical seven-celled, eight-nucleate embryo sac (with the egg apparatus, central cell, and antipodal cells).
So, mapping this to the labels in your question:
- a = Meiosis-I (first reduction division)
- b = Meiosis-II (second division, producing four megaspores)
- c = No division (three megaspores degenerate) …
- CBSE 2026Set A1 markMCQQ.Which of the following is one of the most resistant organic materials?(a) Pectin(b) Cellulose(c) Sporopollenin(d) Chitin
›Reveal solutionSolution
Sporopollenin forms the pollen exine and is among the most resistant organic materials known.
The hard outer wall (exine) of a pollen grain is made of sporopollenin. It can withstand high temperatures and strong acids and alkalis, and no enzyme is known that can degrade it. This extreme resistance is wh …
- CBSE 2026Set A1 markMCQQ.Which of the following cells is present in pollen grain of angiospermic plants?(a) Vegetative cell(b) Generative cell(c) Antipodal cell(d) Both (A) and (B)
›Reveal solutionSolution
An angiosperm pollen grain (male gametophyte) contains a vegetative cell and a generative cell.
When a pollen grain is shed, it is usually at the 2-celled stage. It contains a large vegetative (tube) cell with abundant food reserves, and a small generative cell floating within its cytoplasm. The generative cell later divides to form two male ga …
- CBSE 2026Set A1 markMCQQ.Which of the following plays an important role in guiding the pollen tube into the synergids?(a) Antipodals(b) Filiform apparatus(c) Central cell(d) Micropyle
›Reveal solutionSolution
The filiform apparatus of the synergids guides the entering pollen tube into a synergid.
At the micropylar end of the embryo sac, the synergids bear special cellular thickenings called the filiform apparatus. This structure guides the pollen tube by directing its entry into one of the synergids. Once inside, the pollen tube bursts and releases the …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markQ.What does 'A' and 'B' represent in the above mentioned diagram of the mature embryosac? Write name for each.
›Reveal solutionSolution
In the mature 7-celled, 8-nucleate embryo sac, A marks the two polar nuclei of the central cell and B marks the three-celled egg apparatus (2 synergids + 1 egg cell) at the micropylar end.
A typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity has 7 cells and 8 nuclei, organised as: 3 antipodal cells at the chalazal end; a large central cell containing 2 polar nuclei (which fuse with a male gamete during triple fusion to form the triploid endosperm); and, at the micropylar end, the egg apparatus consisting of 1 egg cell flanked by 2 synergid cells. The synergids bear a special thickened structure at their micropylar tip called the filiform apparatus, which guides entry of the pollen tube into the embryo sac. In the given figure, going from the chalazal end (top, unlabelled antipodal cells) toward the micropylar end (bottom, where the filiform a …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Male gametes in angiosperms are formed by the division of(a) Vegetative cell(b) Generative cell(c) Microspore mother cell(d) Megaspore mother cell
›Reveal solutionSolution
The pollen grain's generative cell divides mitotically to form two non-motile male gametes that are delivered through the pollen tube.
A mature pollen grain in angiosperms is typically 2-celled at shedding: a larger vegetative (tube) cell and a smaller generative cell, floating within the vegetative cell's cytoplasm.
- The vegetative cell has abundant food reserves and, upon germination on the stigma, forms the pollen tube that grows down through the style. …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markQ.Where is filiform apparatus located? What is the role of filiform apparatus?
›Reveal solutionSolution
The filiform apparatus is a set of finger-like cell-wall thickenings at the micropylar end of each synergid, and it functions to guide the entry of the pollen tube into the embryo sac.
Location: Within the mature embryo sac of an angiosperm ovule, two synergid cells flank the egg cell at the micropylar end (together forming the egg apparatus). Each synergid has specialised, finger-like thickenings of its cell wall at its micropylar tip called the filiform apparatus.
…
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Pollen grains retain viability for months in plant belonging to different families given below :(i) Solanaceae(ii) Leguminosae(iii) Gramineae(iv) Rosaceae(v) Liliaceae Correct option is :(a) (i),(ii) &(v)(b) (i),(ii) &(iv)(c) (ii), (iv),(v)(d) (i), (iii), (v)
›Reveal solutionSolution
Pollen viability varies enormously by species — from 30 minutes in some cereals to months in members of Solanaceae, Leguminosae and Rosaceae.
Pollen grain lifespan depends on temperature and humidity. In many members of the family Poaceae (Gramineae) pollen viability is lost within 30 minutes of release, while in some members of Solanaceae, Leguminosae, and Rosaceae, pollen grains maintain viability for …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.The structure of bilobed anther consist of :(a) 2 thecae, 2 sporangia(b) 4 thecae, 4 sporangia(c) 4 thecae, 2 sporangia(d) 2 thecae, 4 sporangia
›Reveal solutionSolution
A typical anther is bilobed and dithecous: two lobes (thecae), each theca bearing two microsporangia (pollen sacs) — four microsporangia in total.
A mature anther consists of two lobes joined by a sterile connective. Each lobe is called a theca, so a bilobed anther has 2 thecae, making it 'dithecous'. Within each theca lie two elongated sac-like structures called microsporangia (pollen sacs), running almost the full length of the anther. So each theca contributes 2 microsporangia, giving …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Egg apparatus is made up of :(a) 2 synergid cells + 2 egg cells(b) 1 synergid cell + 2 egg cells(c) 2 synergid cells + 1 egg cell(d) 1 synergid cell + 1 egg cell
›Reveal solutionSolution
The egg apparatus, sitting at the micropylar end of the embryo sac, is made up of 2 synergid cells + 1 egg cell.
The mature female gametophyte (embryo sac) of a flowering plant is typically 7-celled and 8-nucleate. At its micropylar end lies a group of three cells called the egg apparatus, consisting of:
- 1 egg cell (oosphere) — the female gamete, located in the centre, flanked by the two synergids. …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.During fertilization, which cell fuses with male gamete to form zygote?(a) Egg Cell(b) Polar Cell(c) Synergid(d) Antipodal Cell
›Reveal solutionSolution
Syngamy (fusion of the egg cell with one male gamete) forms the diploid zygote; the other male gamete fuses with the polar nuclei (triple fusion) to form the endosperm — together this is double fertilization.
In the mature embryo sac, the egg apparatus consists of one egg cell flanked by two synergids, with three antipodal cells at the chalazal end and two polar nuclei in the central cell. When the pollen tube discharges its two male gametes into a synergid:
- One male gamete fuses with the egg cell → forms the diploid zygote (syngamy). …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.Which of the following cells are present in the egg apparatus?(a) Antipodal cells(b) Synergids(c) Synergids and one egg cell(d) Polar nuclei and one egg cell
›Reveal solutionSolution
The egg apparatus at the micropylar end of the embryo sac is made up of two synergids flanking a single central egg cell.
A mature (7-celled, 8-nucleate) angiosperm embryo sac has three cell groups: the egg apparatus at the micropylar end (consisting of two synergid cells and one egg cell), three antipodal cells at the chalazal end, and a large central cell containing two polar nuclei. Since the question asks specifically about the cells present in the egg apparatus, the answer is t …
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