Q.(a)
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🔒 Start your 14-day free trial to unlock the full solution →Part (a)Concept understanding — Assisted Reproductive Technology
Imagine you have a friend who wants to have a baby, but nature isn't cooperating. Maybe the fallopian tubes are blocked, or the sperm count is very low, or the woman's age makes it difficult. For decades, that was the end of the story. But today, doctors have a toolkit of medical procedures that can step in and help — that toolkit is called Assisted Reproductive Technology, or ART.
At its simplest, ART is any medical technique that handles a human egg or sperm outside the body to help a person get pregnant. The most famous example is IVF (in vitro fertilisation), where the egg and sperm are combined in a lab dish — "in vitro" means "in glass" — and the resulting embryo is then placed into the woman's uterus. But ART is broader than just IVF. It includes everything from injecting a single sperm directly into an egg (ICSI) to using a donor's egg or sperm, or even having another woman carry the pregnancy (surrogacy).
The NCERT textbook (Class 12 Biology, Chapter 4) defines ART as all techniques that involve the direct handling of gametes (sperm and eggs) or embryos outside the body to achieve pregnancy. This is the key distinction: if the procedure doesn't involve handling eggs, sperm, or embryos in a lab, it's not ART.
Why does this matter for a commerce or humanities student? Because ART is not just a medical story — it's a social, legal, and economic one. It raises questions about who can afford it (it's expensive), who gets to be a parent (single people, same-sex couples), and what happens to unused embryos (legal and ethical debates). In India, the Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 now governs these procedures, requiring clinics to be registered and banning commercial surrogacy for foreigners. So when you read about "test-tube babies" or "surrogacy laws" in the news, you're looking at ART in action.
Here are the main techniques you should know, as listed in the NCERT:
- IVF (In Vitro Fertilisation): Egg and sperm are mixed in a lab dish. The embryo is then transferred to the uterus.
- ICSI (Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection): A single sperm is injected directly into an egg. Used when sperm count is very low.
- GIFT (Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer): Eggs and sperm are placed directly into the fallopian tube, so fertilisation happens inside the body.
- ZIFT (Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer): A fertilised egg (zygote) is placed into the fallopian tube. …
Part (b)Concept understanding — Seed Structure Terminology
Seed Structure Terminology – A First Look
Think of a seed as a tiny, self-contained survival kit. A plant makes a seed to send its offspring out into the world, equipped with everything needed to travel, wait, and eventually sprout into a new plant. The terminology around seed structure is simply the names we give to the parts of that kit.
The Three Essential Parts
Every seed, from a mustard seed to a mango seed, has three basic components. You can remember them as the baby, the lunchbox, and the coat.
- Embryo – This is the baby plant itself. It is a miniature, dormant plant with tiny leaves (cotyledons or plumule), a tiny stem (hypocotyl), and a tiny root (radicle). When conditions are right, the embryo wakes up and starts growing.
- Endosperm – This is the lunchbox. It is a tissue that stores food (starch, proteins, oils) for the embryo to use when it germinates. In some seeds, the endosperm is consumed by the embryo before the seed matures, and the food is stored directly in the cotyledons instead.
- Seed Coat – This is the coat. It is a tough, protective outer layer that shields the embryo from injury, drying out, and disease. It often has a tiny scar called the hilum where the seed was attached to the mother plant, and a small pore called the micropyle that lets water enter during germination.
The micropyle is a tiny opening in the seed coat. It is not just a scar — it is a functional pore. Water enters through the micropyle to trigger germination, and later, the radicle (the first root) emerges through it.
Why This Matters for Exams
In NCERT textbooks (Class 11 Biology, Chapter 5), seed structure is taught to help you understand how plants reproduce and how seeds are adapted for survival. The key distinction you must know is between two types of seeds based on where the food is stored:
- Albuminous seeds – The endosperm remains present and stores food. Example: castor, coconut, maize.
- Exalbuminous seeds – The endosperm is completely used up during development, and food is stored in the cotyledons. Example: pea, bean, groundnut.
In exalbuminous seeds, the cotyledons become thick and fleshy because they have absorbed the endosperm. In albuminous seeds, the cotyledons remain thin and papery because the endosperm does the job of food storage.
A Simple Way to Visualise
Imagine a packed lunch in a lunchbox inside a backpack. The embryo is the child, the endosperm is the lunch, and the seed coat is the backpack. In an albuminous seed, the lunchbox is still full when the child opens it. In an exalbuminous seed, the child has already eaten the lunch and packed the food into its own pockets (the cotyledons) before the journey begins.
Common Exam Terms at a Glance
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Radicle | The part of the embryo that becomes the root |
| Plumule | The part that becomes the shoot (stem and leaves) |
Part (a)
(i) Expansions:
- ZIFT — Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer
- ICSI — Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection
- IUT — Intra Uterine Transfer
- GIFT — Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer
(ii) GIFT cannot be considered an IVF procedure. In IVF (“in-vitro fertilisation”) fertilisation occurs outside the body in the laboratory; but in GIFT the gametes (egg + sperm) are transferred into the fallopian tube where fertilisation takes place naturally inside the body, so no in-vitro fertilisation is involved. …
Part (a): ZIFT/ICSI/IUT/GIFT are assisted reproductive technologies; GIFT is the odd one out because its fertilisation happens inside the body, not in vitro. Part (b): perisperm (persistent nucellus) vs pericarp (fruit wall); syncarpous (fused carpels) vs apocarpous (free carpels); plumule (→shoot) vs radicle (→root).
Part (a)
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) help infertile couples conceive.
(i) Expansions:
- ZIFT — Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer: an egg fertilised in the lab (early zygote/up to 8-cell stage) is transferred into the fallopian tube.
- ICSI — Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection: a single sperm is injected directly into the cytoplasm of the ovum in the laboratory (used when sperm count/motility is very low).
- IUT — Intra Uterine Transfer: an embryo (beyond the 8-cell stage) formed in the lab is placed into the uterus.
- GIFT — Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer: an ovum (from a donor) together with sperm is transferred into the fallopian tube. …
Showing the 12 most recent of 47 on this concept.
- CBSE 2026Set A1 markMCQQ.In which of the following seeds is perisperm not found?(a) Beet(b) Black pepper(c) Wheat(d) Both (A) and (B)
›Reveal solutionSolution
Wheat has no perisperm; beet and black pepper are examples of seeds where perisperm persists.
Perisperm is the residual, persistent nucellus that remains in the mature seed of a few plants. In seeds such as beet (Beta) and black pepper, the nucellus is not fully used up and remains as perisperm. In wheat, the nucellus is co …
- CBSE 2026Set A1 markMCQQ.What is cotyledon called in grass family?(a) Plumule(b) Radicle(c) Hypocotyl(d) Scutellum
›Reveal solutionSolution
In the grass family (Poaceae), the cotyledon is a shield-shaped structure called the scutellum.
Grasses are monocots and have a single cotyledon. In their embryo this cotyledon is highly modified into a shield-shaped structure that lies against the endosperm and absorbs food from it during germination — this is called the scutellum. The plumule is the embryoni …
- CBSE 2026Set A1 markMCQQ.What is it called when an embryo having more than eight blastomeres is transferred to the uterus for development?(a) IVF(b) Intrauterine Transfer(c) Zygote Intra-fallopian Transfer(d) ICSI
›Reveal solutionSolution
An embryo with more than 8 blastomeres is placed in the uterus by Intrauterine Transfer (IUT); an early embryo (up to 8 blastomeres) goes into the fallopian tube (ZIFT).
In assisted reproductive technologies, embryos produced in the laboratory are transferred into the female. If the embryo is at an early stage — up to the 8-blastomere stage — it is transferred into the fallopian tube by Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT). If the embryo has more than 8 blastomeres, it is transferr …
- CBSE 2026Set BOTANY1 markMCQQ.In a developing monocot embryo, _____ is often called the scutellum.(a) plumule(b) cotyledon(c) radicle(d) root cap
›Reveal solutionSolution
In a developing monocot (e.g. grass family) embryo, the single cotyledon is specialised into a shield-shaped structure called the scutellum, which absorbs nutrients from the endosperm.
A mature dicot embryo has two cotyledons, a plumule (embryonic shoot) and a radicle (embryonic root). A mature monocot embryo, in contrast, has only a single cotyledon. In grasses (Poaceae) such as maize, rice and wheat, this single cotyledon is large, shield-shaped, and pressed against the endosperm; it is given the special name scutellum. The scutellum's main function is absorptive - during seed germination it secretes enzymes (like amylases, under gibberellin control) that digest the stored starch of the endosperm and absorb the resulting nutrients to nourish the growing embryo. The embryonal axis o …
- CBSE 2026Set ZOOLOGY1 markMCQQ.In the assisted reproductive technique, GIFT, the collected sperm and egg are transferred to which organ of the female?(a) Uterus(b) Vagina(c) Urethra(d) Fallopian tube
›Reveal solutionSolution
GIFT stands for Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer - collected sperm and egg are transferred into the fallopian tube.
GIFT is an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) used to help couples who cannot conceive naturally, especially those with a healthy uterus but who cannot produce an ovum (e.g., due to ovarian issues). In this technique, an ovum from a donor female is collected and transferred, along with the sperm, into the fallopian tube (oviduct) of the recipi …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.The technique by which sperm is directly injected into the ovum, is(a) ZIFT(b) GIFT(c) ZIUT(d) ICSI
›Reveal solutionSolution
ICSI is an assisted reproductive technique where a sperm is directly injected into an ovum's cytoplasm, bypassing the need for natural sperm penetration.
Among assisted reproductive technologies (ART):
- ZIFT (Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer) transfers an early embryo/zygote formed in the lab into the fallopian tube.
- GIFT (Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer) transfers an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce her own ova. …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markQ.Case Study - 1. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions : In case of an infertile couple male has abnormally low sperm count in ejaculation and female has blocked oviduct & has spermicidal secretions in vagina but can provide suitable environment for development of embryo. What is infertility ?
›Reveal solutionSolution
Infertility is diagnosed when a couple fails to achieve conception/pregnancy despite regular unprotected sex over an extended period, and can arise from a defect/deficiency in either partner.
Infertility is defined as the inability of a couple to produce/conceive a child even after normal, unprotected sexual cohabitation for a reasonable period of time (typically taken as one year or more of regular attempts). Its causes can be physical, congenital, disease-related, drug/immunological or even purely psychological, and may lie with either the male partner (e.g. low sperm count, blocked ducts), the female partner (e.g. blocked oviducts, hormonal issues), or both. In cases such as the one described here — a male with an abnormally low sperm count and a …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markQ.Refer to the Case Study - 1 passage above (infertile couple with low sperm count and blocked oviduct with spermicidal vaginal secretions). Suggest ART used in above case.
›Reveal solutionSolution
Since the female's oviduct is blocked (preventing normal gamete transport and fertilisation in vivo) but her uterus can support an embryo, and the male has a low sperm count, the couple needs fertilisation to happen OUTSIDE the body, followed by placing the resulting embryo directly into the uterus (or an unblocked part of the oviduct).
Given that (i) the female partner has a blocked oviduct — meaning sperm and egg cannot naturally meet or the fertilised egg cannot travel down to the uterus — but her uterus can support embryonic development, and (ii) the male partner has a low sperm count, the appropriate ART is:
- IVF (In Vitro Fertilisation): ova collected from the female and sperm from the male are made to fuse in the laboratory ('test tube baby' technique) — this fertilisation step does not require an unblocked oviduct.
- ICSI (Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection): used alongside IVF because of the male's low sperm count, a single healthy sperm is directly injected into the ovum to ensure fertilisation. …
- CBSE 2026Set ANNUAL1 markMCQQ.In a grass family, the cotyledon is called(a) plumule(b) radicle(c) embryo(d) scutellum
›Reveal solutionSolution
The scutellum is the specialised, shield-shaped single cotyledon characteristic of grass-family (monocot) embryos.
In the embryo of members of the grass family (Poaceae), the single cotyledon is highly modified into a shield-shaped structure known as the scutellum, situated laterally, one side pressed against the endosperm. It functions to absorb and transfer nutrients from the endosperm to the growing embryo axis during germination. The plumule (a) an …
- CBSE 2025Set 57/4/11 markMCQQ.Select the statements that are true for a typical dicotyledonous embryo from the given options.(i) It consists of an embryonal axis and scutellum.(ii) The portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledon is epicotyl.(iii) The portion of embryonal axis below the level of cotyledon is coleorhiza.(iv) The lower end of the embryo has radicle covered with a root cap. Choose the correct answer : (A)(i) and(ii) (B)(i) and(iii) (C)(iii) and(iv) (D)(ii) and (iv)
›Reveal solutionSolution
A dicot embryo has an epicotyl above the cotyledons and a radicle (with root cap) below; scutellum and coleorhiza are monocot features.
The structure of a seed embryo differs fundamentally between monocots and dicots, and recognizing these differences is essential for understanding seed anatomy. The question asks us to identify features specific to a dicotyledonous embryo, so we need to carefully distinguish what belongs to dicots versus what is characteristic of monocots.
Every angiosperm embryo, whether monocot or dicot, consists of an embryonal axis and one or more cotyledons (seed leaves). The embryonal axis is the young stem-root axis of the plant, and it has two distinct regions defined by their position relative to the cotyledons.
Let's examine each statement:
Statement (i): "It consists of an embryonal axis and scutellum."
The scutellum is the single, shield-shaped cotyledon found in monocots like maize and wheat. Dicots, by definition, have two cotyledons, not a scutellum. This statement is incorrect for dicots.
Statement (ii): "The portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledon is epicotyl."
This is accurate. The epicotyl is the part of the embryonal axis that lies above the point of attachment of the cotyledons. In dicots, the epicotyl terminates in the plumule, which is the embryonic shoot tip that will develop into the shoot system. This statement is correct.
NoteThe epicotyl often bears a few immature leaves in the embryo, visible as the plumule. After germination, this region grows into the stem and leaves above the cotyledons.
Statement (iii): "The portion of embryonal axis below the level of cotyledon is coleorhiza."
The coleorhiza is a protective sheath that covers the radicle in monocot embryos, particularly in grasses. In dicots, the portion of the embryonal axis below the cotyledons is simply called the hypocotyl, and it terminates in the radicle (the embryonic root). There is no coleorhiza in dicots. This statement is incorrect. …
- CBSE 2025Set 57/6/11 markMCQQ.Select the statements that are true for the seed of angiosperm from the given options :(i) Non-albuminous seeds have no residual endosperm.(ii) Residual, persistent nucellus in wheat is known as perisperm.(iii) Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coat.(iv) Metabolic activity of the embryo slows down in dormancy. Choose the correct option : (A)(i) and(ii) (B)(ii) and(iii) (C)(iii) and(iv) (D)(i) and (iv)
›Reveal solutionSolution
In angiosperm seeds, the integuments harden into a protective seed coat, and the embryo’s metabolic activity slows during dormancy — but non-albuminous seeds lack endosperm, not residual endosperm, and the persistent nucellus in wheat is called perisperm only in certain other seeds like black pepper.
Let’s walk through each statement carefully, because the terminology around seed structure can be tricky — and the NCERT textbook is very precise about it.
Statement (i): “Non-albuminous seeds have no residual endosperm.”
This sounds plausible, but it’s not quite right. Non-albuminous seeds (also called exalbuminous seeds) are those in which the endosperm is completely consumed during embryo development, so the mature seed lacks endosperm altogether. The phrase “residual endosperm” would imply that some endosperm remains — but in non-albuminous seeds, there is none left. The NCERT clearly states that in such seeds (e.g., pea, groundnut), the endosperm is absent. So saying “no residual endosperm” is technically correct in meaning, but the wording is misleading because “residual” suggests something that could remain but doesn’t. More importantly, the NCERT uses the term “non-albuminous” precisely for seeds without endosperm — not for seeds that have some leftover. So this statement is false as phrased.
NoteA common confusion: “non-albuminous” means endosperm is absent at maturity. “Albuminous” seeds retain endosperm. The word “residual” is not used by NCERT for this distinction.
Statement (ii): “Residual, persistent nucellus in wheat is known as perisperm.”
This is incorrect. In wheat, which is a cereal grain, the persistent nucellus does not form a perisperm. The NCERT textbook specifically mentions that perisperm is the persistent nucellus found in seeds like black pepper and beet — not in wheat. In wheat, the endosperm is the major storage tissue, and the nucellus degenerates. So this statement is false.
Statement (iii): “Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coat.” …
- CBSE 2025Set X11 markMCQQ.Which one among the following ART can be used to rectify if the infertility is due to low sperm count?(a) GIFT(b) IUT(c) ZIFT(d) IUI
›Reveal solutionSolution
Intra-uterine insemination (IUI) is used to overcome infertility due to low sperm count.
In IUI, semen collected either from the husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced into the uterus of the female. It is the assisted reproductive technology specifically recommended when the male partner is unable to inseminate the female or has a very low sperm count. GIFT transfers an ovum/gamete into the fallopian tube of a female who …
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