New Notions of Kingship

The kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and further south — including the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilakam — proved stable and prosperous. Tamilakam was the ancient Tamil country, covering parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. These states were organised differently from the large empires of the north, and their rulers developed new ways of projecting power.

Chiefs and chiefdoms in the south

A chief was a powerful man whose position might or might not be hereditary. Unlike a king, a chief derived his support primarily from his kinfolk. His functions included performing special rituals, leading in warfare, and arbitrating disputes. Chiefs received gifts from their subordinates — not taxes, which kings collected — and often redistributed these gifts among their supporters. Chiefdoms generally lacked regular armies and officials.

We know about these states from a variety of sources. The early Tamil Sangam texts contain poems describing chiefs and how they acquired and distributed resources. Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas (who ruled parts of western and central India from roughly the second century BCE to the second century CE) and the Shakas (people of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent), derived revenues from long-distance trade. Their social origins were often obscure, but once they acquired power they attempted to claim social status in a variety of ways.

Divine kings

One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. This strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas, who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India from roughly the first century BCE to the first century CE. Their history has been reconstructed from inscriptions and textual traditions. The notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in their coins and sculpture.

Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), and similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or "son of god", possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.

By the fourth century there is evidence of larger states, including the Gupta Empire. Many of these depended on samantas — men who maintained themselves through local resources including control over land. They offered homage and provided military support to rulers. Powerful samantas could become kings; conversely, weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to positions of subordination.

Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from literature, coins, and inscriptions, including prashastis — compositions in praise of kings and patrons, written by poets. While historians often attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, those who composed and read them often treasured them as works of poetry rather than as accounts that were literally true.

The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) is a case in point. It was composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, arguably the most powerful of the Gupta rulers (circa fourth century CE). The inscription praises Samudragupta in extravagant terms: …