Strategies for increasing production

The key to understanding early Indian economic history is to realise that agricultural surplus was the foundation of state power. Without enough food, kings could not support armies, officials, or towns. So the question of how to produce more from the land was a central political concern, not just a technical one.

From around the sixth century BCE, two major strategies were adopted to increase agricultural production: a shift to more intensive farming methods, and the construction of irrigation works.

The shift to plough agriculture

The first major change was the spread of plough agriculture, especially in fertile alluvial river valleys like those of the Ganga and the Kaveri. The key innovation here was the iron-tipped ploughshare. This tool could cut through the heavy, sticky alluvial soil much more effectively than wooden ploughs, especially in areas with high rainfall.

However, this technology was not adopted everywhere. Its use was restricted to certain parts of the subcontinent. Cultivators in semi-arid regions, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan, did not adopt the iron ploughshare until the twentieth century. In hilly tracts of the north-eastern and central parts of the subcontinent, people practised hoe agriculture, which was much better suited to the terrain.

Transplantation of paddy

In some parts of the Ganga valley, a specific technique dramatically increased the production of paddy (rice): transplantation.

This method required back-breaking work for the producer, but the increase in output was substantial. It was used in areas where water was plentiful.

The use of irrigation

The second major strategy was the use of irrigation. This was done through:

• Wells
• Tanks
• Canals (less commonly used)

The construction of irrigation works was organised by both communities and individuals. Powerful men, including kings, often recorded such activities in inscriptions to publicise their achievements.

The Sudarshana lake: a case study in royal irrigation

A famous example of a royal irrigation project is the Sudarshana (beautiful) lake in Gujarat, near Girnar. We know about it from a rock inscription in Sanskrit from around the second century CE, composed to record the achievements of the Shaka ruler Rudradaman.

The inscription tells us that the lake, with its embankments and water channels, was originally built by a local governor during the rule of the Mauryas. Later, a terrible storm broke the embankments and water gushed out. Rudradaman, who was then ruling the area, claimed to have got the lake repaired using his own resources, without imposing any tax on his subjects. …