History · Ch 2 — Kings, Farmers and Towns — Early States and Economies
The Earliest States
The Earliest States
The Sixteen Mahajanapadas
The sixth century BCE marks a major turning point in early Indian history. This period saw the emergence of early states, the growth of cities, the increasing use of iron, and the development of coinage. It was also a time of great intellectual ferment, with the rise of Buddhism and Jainism alongside other systems of thought.
Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen states called mahajanapadas. While the lists vary across texts, certain names appear frequently: Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti. These were clearly among the most important mahajanapadas.
Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings. However, some — known as ganas or sanghas — were oligarchies. In an oligarchy, power is shared by a group of men, often collectively called rajas. Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas. In the Vajji sangha, for instance, the rajas probably controlled resources like land collectively. Although reconstructing their history is difficult due to scarce sources, some of these states lasted for nearly a thousand years.
Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. Maintaining these fortified cities, along with raising armies and running bureaucracies, required substantial resources.
The word janapada means "the land where a jana (a people, clan, or tribe) sets its foot or settles." It is used in both Prakrit and Sanskrit.
From around the sixth century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts called the Dharmasutras. These laid down norms for rulers, who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas. Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders, and artisans. Whether resources were also taken from pastoralists and forest peoples is not clearly known. What is known is that raids on neighbouring states were recognised as a legitimate way to acquire wealth.
Gradually, some states developed standing armies and regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on militias, often recruited from the peasantry.
Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces like stone, metal, or pottery. They record achievements, activities, or ideas — such as the exploits of kings or donations made to religious institutions. Inscriptions are virtually permanent records; some carry dates, while others are dated based on palaeography (styles of writing). The earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit, a language used by ordinary people.
First Amongst the Sixteen: Magadha
Between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada. Modern historians offer several explanations for this:
- Productive agriculture — the region was especially fertile.
- Access to iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) — these provided resources for tools and weapons.
- Elephants — found in the region's forests, they were an important component of the army.
- The Ganga and its tributaries — they provided cheap and convenient communication. …