Q.(a) State any four steps that the heads of all the member countries had decided to take in September 2005 to make the United Nations more relevant in the changing context.

The term "Baltic Republics" refers specifically to the three nations that lie along the Baltic Sea's eastern shore, sandwiched between Russia to the east and the sea to the west. These are Estonia in the north, Latvia in the middle, and Lithuania in the south. Their shared geography, history of Soviet occupation, and eventual re‑independence in 1991 bind them together as a distinct group.

Option (A) — Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania — is the correct trio.

The other options mix in countries that are not part of this group. Slovenia is a Balkan nation, far to the south, with no Baltic coastline. Romania lies on the Black Sea, not the Baltic. So options (B), (C), and (D) each include at least one country that does not belong to the Baltic region. …

India's New Economic Reforms, often referred to as the Liberalisation, Privatisation, and Globalisation (LPG) model, marked a watershed moment in the nation's economic history. These reforms were not merely a policy adjustment but a fundamental shift in India's economic philosophy, moving away from a largely state-controlled, inward-looking economy towards a more market-oriented and globally integrated system.

The impetus for these drastic changes came from a severe economic crisis in 1991. India was facing an unprecedented balance of payments crisis, with foreign exchange reserves dwindling to a point where they could barely cover a few weeks of imports. Inflation was high, and the government's fiscal deficit was unsustainable. The nation was on the brink of defaulting on its international debt obligations. This dire situation necessitated urgent and comprehensive measures to stabilise the economy and restore international confidence.

To address this crisis, the government approached the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank for emergency loans. These institutions, in turn, stipulated a set of conditions for the loans, which included structural reforms aimed at opening up the Indian economy. This external pressure, combined with an internal recognition of the need for change, paved the way for the New Economic Policy.

The core components of the New Economic Reforms were:

• Liberalisation: This involved dismantling various controls and regulations that had stifled economic activity. Industrial licensing was largely abolished, allowing businesses greater freedom to set up, expand, and diversify. Restrictions on foreign trade and investment were significantly eased, reducing tariffs and quotas. The aim was to unleash the entrepreneurial spirit and make the economy more competitive.
• Privatisation: This policy involved reducing the role of the public sector and increasing the participation of the private sector. Public sector undertakings (PSUs) were either sold off to private entities or their government ownership was reduced. The rationale was that private companies, driven by profit motives, would be more efficient and innovative than state-owned enterprises.
• Globalisation: This referred to integrating the Indian economy with the global economy. It involved encouraging foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign institutional investment (FII), allowing Indian companies to access international markets, and making the rupee partially convertible. The goal was to leverage global capital, technology, and markets for India's economic growth.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 was one of the most dramatic turning points of the late twentieth century. To understand it, you have to look at the man at the centre of the storm: Mikhail Gorbachev. He came to power in 1985, at a time when the USSR was struggling with a stagnant economy, an expensive arms race with the United States, and growing discontent among its satellite states in Eastern Europe.

Gorbachev was not the founder of the Communist Party of Russia — that was Lenin, back in 1917. Nor was he a leader of Western European countries, which is obviously incorrect. And he was certainly not a leader against reforms; in fact, he was the driving force for reforms. His policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) were intended to modernise the Soviet system from within. Instead, they unleashed forces that led to the end of the Cold War and the breakup of the USSR itself.

Cuba's relationship with the Soviet Union became one of the defining partnerships of the Cold War after Fidel Castro's revolution in 1959. When the United States imposed economic sanctions and attempted to isolate the island nation, Cuba turned to the Soviet bloc for survival and support.

The Soviet Union provided Cuba with comprehensive assistance across multiple dimensions. Diplomatic aid was crucial—Moscow used its position in international forums to shield Cuba from hostile resolutions, vetoed UN Security Council measures against the island, and helped legitimize Castro's government on the world stage. This political backing was vital for a small nation facing the hostility of its superpower neighbor just ninety miles away.

Equally important was financial aid. The Soviet Union poured billions of dollars into Cuba through subsidized trade agreements, purchasing Cuban sugar at above-market prices and selling oil at discounted rates. Direct economic assistance helped build infrastructure, maintain social programs, and keep the Cuban economy afloat despite the American embargo. This financial lifeline made Cuba's socialist experiment possible and sustained the island through decades of isolation from Western markets. …

The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the subsequent disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 did not just redraw political maps — it shattered an entire way of organising economic life. For decades, the countries of Eastern Europe and the former USSR had operated under a command economy, where the state owned all factories, farms, and shops, and a central planning committee in Moscow (or the national capital) decided what to produce, how much to produce, and at what price to sell it. This system had grown rigid, inefficient, and unable to keep pace with the consumer-driven economies of the West.

When Communism collapsed, the new governments faced a single, overwhelming question: how do you turn a state-run economy into one where private individuals and companies make the decisions? The answer was a sweeping, often painful set of reforms that historians and economists call the transition to a market economy.

The process took two main forms. In some countries, like Poland and the Czech Republic, the government sold state assets to private investors or gave citizens vouchers that could be used to buy shares in former state companies. This was known as 'mass privatisation'. In others, particularly Russia, a small number of well-connected individuals (the 'oligarchs') were able to acquire enormous state enterprises at very low prices, creating vast personal fortunes almost overnight. This led to a deeply unequal and often corrupt form of capitalism.

Alongside privatisation came liberalisation — the removal of state controls on prices, trade, and currency exchange. In the old system, the government set prices for bread, rent, and fuel, often far below the real cost. Once these controls were lifted, prices shot up, wiping out the savings of ordinary people. At the same time, state subsidies to factories were cut, causing massive unemployment as inefficient plants closed down. The result was a severe economic depression in the 1990s, with output falling by 30–50% in many post-Communist countries.

Part (a)

During the Cold War the world was split into two hostile camps built on opposed ideological foundations. The Western alliance, led by the United States and formalised through NATO, championed liberal democracy — multiparty elections, individual liberty, freedom of speech and the press — and capitalism, resting on private ownership, free markets and the profit motive. The Marshall Plan, which rebuilt Western Europe after 1945, both aided recovery and spread this capitalist-democratic model. …

Part (a)

The 'Second World' was the bloc of socialist states, mainly in Eastern Europe, allied with and controlled by the Soviet Union. The single event of 1989 that dramatically signalled its collapse was the fall of the Berlin Wall. Built in 1961 to stop East Germans fleeing to the West, the Wall was the most powerful physical symbol of the Cold War division. As reform movements swept Eastern Europe under Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika, thousands of East Berliners converged on the checkpoints on 9 November 1989 and the guards opened the gates. People from both sides began dismantling the Wall — an event that triggered the fall of communist governments across Eastern Europe, led to German reunification within a year, and marked the end of the Cold War; the USSR itself dissolved two years later, in 1991. …