History · Ch 1 — Bricks, Beads and Bones — The Harappan Civilisation
Cunningham’s confusion
Cunningham’s confusion
Cunningham’s Confusion
When Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), began excavating in the mid-19th century, archaeology was guided by written texts — inscriptions, accounts of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims (4th–7th centuries CE), and early historic records. His focus was on the Early Historic period (c. 6th century BCE–4th century CE) and later periods.
Harappa did not fit this framework: it was not mentioned by Chinese pilgrims, nor was it known as an Early Historic city. So, even though Harappan artefacts (like seals) were found and reached Cunningham, he failed to recognise their antiquity. He tried to date them within the familiar time-frame of Indian history, which then began with the first cities in the Ganga valley (c. 6th century BCE). This is why he missed the significance of Harappa.
Key Concepts from the Section
- Archaeology guided by texts: In the 19th century, excavators used written records (inscriptions, pilgrim accounts) to locate and interpret sites.
- Cunningham’s method: He collected, documented, and translated inscriptions; excavated sites for culturally valuable artefacts; and relied on Chinese Buddhist pilgrim itineraries (4th–7th centuries CE).
- Harappa’s exclusion: Harappa was not on any pilgrim route and was not an Early Historic city, so it was ignored.
- The Harappan seal: An Englishman gave Cunningham a Harappan seal. Cunningham noted it but could not place it in his known chronology — he thought Indian history began with the Ganga valley cities.
- Archaeogenetics (box): The study of ancient population DNA using molecular genetics to understand population history.
Sites, Mounds, and Layers (Stratigraphy)
- Mound: Occupational debris that builds up when people live in the same place over time.
- Layers: Traces of ancient materials found in distinct strata. Each layer differs in colour, texture, and artefacts. …
What the Figure Shows
Figure 1.24 is a reproduction of Alexander Cunningham’s own hand-drawn sketch of the first-known seal from Harappa. The seal itself is a small, square or rectangular steatite (soft stone) object, typical of the Harappan civilisation. In Cunningham’s sketch, the seal is depicted with:
- A central motif: A single-horned animal (often called a “unicorn”) standing in profile, facing right. The animal has a prominent hump and a long, curved horn.
- An inscription: Above the animal, a line of six pictographic signs (Harappan script) is shown. These signs are not deciphered and appear as a series of abstract symbols.
- A border: The seal is framed by a simple line border, with no additional decorative elements.
Cunningham’s sketch is not a photograph — it is a hand-drawn, simplified rendering. He did not attempt to interpret the script or the animal, and the sketch reflects his limited understanding of the object’s age and cultural context.
What the Figure Teaches About the Topic
This figure is central to understanding why early archaeologists like Cunningham failed to recognise the Harappan civilisation’s antiquity. The key lessons are:
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Cunningham’s chronological blind spot: He was trained to look for sites and artefacts that matched the Early Historic period (c. 600 BCE–400 CE) and later. The Harappan seal, with its unknown script and unfamiliar animal, did not fit any known historical framework. He could not date it because he had no reference point for a civilisation that predated the Ganga valley cities.
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The role of the written word: Cunningham, like most 19th-century archaeologists, relied heavily on texts and inscriptions (e.g., Chinese pilgrim accounts, coins, stone edicts) to guide excavations. Harappa had no such textual references, so its artefacts were dismissed as “curiosities” rather than evidence of a lost civilisation.
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The significance of the seal: This seal is now recognised as one of the earliest examples of Harappan writing and iconography. Its discovery, though initially ignored, later became a key piece of evidence that forced archaeologists to rethink the timeline of Indian history — pushing it back by over 2,000 years. …